A People’s History of the World
Page 92
Mass consumer goods 463 , 465
Mass production spread of 399–400
Materialism 69 , 240 , 327
Materialist interpretation of history 329
Mathematics origins of 20 , 34 ; in ancient India 52 ; Arab 131 ; in indigenous American civilisations 162
Matteotti, Giacomo murder of 446
Matthew’s Gospel 88
Mauch, Karl 136
Maurín, Joaquín 510
Maurya Empire 49
Mawali 127–128
Maximilian I imposed as emperor of Mexico 368–369
Maximus, Emperor 98
Maxwell, James Clerk 384
May Day Berlin (1929) 485
May Days Barcelona (1937) 507–508
May events France (1968) 581–582 , 584
May Fourth Movement 456
Mayas 20 , 33 ; class divisions among 24 ; collapse 35 , 38
Mazzini, Giuseppe 343
McCarthyism 546 , 578
McClellan, George B 350 , 351
Meaux burning of heretics in 177
Mecca as trading town 123–124
Mechanical clock 179
Mechanics 208 (see also Artisans )
Mechanisation in medieval Europe 146 ; at end of eighteenth century 318 ; at end of nineteenth century 379 ; agricultural 379
Medes 40
Medicis 154 , 176 , 182
Meinecke, Friedrich joy at war 405 , 434
Melanchthon, Philip 188 , 190 ,
Memmingen programme in German Peasants’ War 187
Memphis (Egypt) 47
Mencius 58
Mensheviks characterisation of revolution needed in Russia 401–402 ; and First World War 415 ; in Russian Civil War 427
Mercantilism 258
Merchants in ancient Egypt and Fertile Crescent 38 , 40 ; in first millennium BC 47 ; in pre-imperial China 55 ; in Arab early Middle Ages 123–125 ; in Sung China 111–114 ; dependence on state bureaucracy in China 114 ; medieval European 154 ; in Renaissance Italy 176 ; in Ming China 223–224 ; in Mogul India 228 ; of northern Netherlands 201 ; in English Civil War 207–208 , 211 ; in Tokugawa Japan 366 ; in North American colonies 266 , 268 ; in France during late eighteenth century 286 ; Indian and British rule 356–357 ; Chinese finance crushing T’ai-p’ing rebellion 361
Meso-America adoption of agriculture 13 ; rise of temples and priests 19–20 , 27 , 33 ; crises in 33
Mesopotamia alphabet 17 ; early cultivation 19 ; ancient 20 , 22 , 27 , 32 , 45 ; irrigation systems 124
Metal workers in First World War 410
Metics 67
Mexico ancient 13 (see Meso-America, Olmecs, Tenochtitlan, Monte Alban, Mayas ); uprising against Spanish rule 313–314 ; invaded by France and by US 314 , 368 (see also Revolution, Mexican )
Michel, Louise speech to court in defence of actions during Paris Commune 374
Michelangelo 176
Middle class cultural development in Ming China 221–222 ; in British India 359 ; in colonial world 449 , 454 , 462 ; German and Nazism 484 ; Catalan 502
Middle class, European liberal in 1848 336 ; vacillates 338 ; attacks workers 339–340 ; succumbs to counter-revolution 340–341
Middle East Britain and France in between wars 521 ; and oil 558 ; 600
Middle Kingdom, Egyptian 41
Midnight in the Century (Serge) 510
Migration black to Northern US cities 464
Miliband, Ralph on capitalist democracy 388
Military Revolutionary Committee 423
Military uprising in Spain (1936) 498
Militias in medieval towns 144
Miliukov, Pavel 414
Millenarial movements medieval 151–153
Millgirls attitudes 322
Milošević, Slobodan 601
Miners’ strike, Britain (1984–85) 589
Miners’ strikes, Poland (1988) 592
Mines in sixteenth century 181
Ming Dynasty 116 , 221–224
Minneapolis Teamsters strikes 514
Minority nationalities movements in Soviet Union in late 1980s 591
Moctezuma II 165–167
Modernism 467–468
Mogul Empire 219–220
Mohammed, The Prophet 124–125
Mohenjo-dero 17 , 32 , 38
Molina, Cristobal de on Spanish treatment of indigenous people 170
Molotov, Vyacheslav 415
Molotov-Ribbentrop pact 522 , 524
Monarchs late medieval 145 , 156
Monarchy, Prussian 327
Monasteries Buddhist in India 52–53 ; in China 111 ; Christian and feudal agriculture 143 ; sacked in Reformation 186
Monasticism Christian, origins of 99 ; in Dark Ages 100
Moncloa Pact 584
Mond-Turner talks 466
Money early use of 51 , 56 ; declining use in Dark Ages Europe 104 ; in fourth-century China 106 ; growing demand for in sixteenth-century Europe 180
Mongols invasions 115 ; social organisation 115 ; ravage Middle East 133–134
Monophysites 119
Monopolies state in ancient China 57 , 107 , 112–113 ; royal in England 205 , 207
Monotheism 228
Montagnais (Canada) 7
Monte Alban 33 , 38
Montesquieu 243
Montgomery bus boycott 579
Montmorency family 192
Montoneros 584
Moorish Spain impact on medieval Europe 145
Moors repression and expulsion from Spain 174–175 , 195
Morelos, José María 304 , 313
Morocco crises between Germany and France (1906 and 1911) 403
Morris, Desmond 3
Moscow coup, abortive (1991) 592
Moscow uprising of 1905 401
Moscow trials 477
Moses and Zipporah (painting) 252
Mosley, Oswald 482
Mother Lü 60
Motzu 58
Mountbatten, Louis reinstates French rule in Vietnam 540
Mozambique early traders from China 134
Mozart 242 , 244
Muir, Thomas 306
Munich in 1918 Revolution 431
Müntzer, Thomas on oppression 188 ; in German Peasant War 189
Musket invention of 179
Muslim League 552–553
Muslims early tolerance of Christians and Jews 127 ; in China 115
Mussolini, Benito 407 , 443–446 , 483 , 493 , 519–521 ; joins Second World War 523 ; on Turin strike of 1943 533 ; removed from office 533–534 ; escapes to north 534
Muste, A J 514
Mutinies on Western Front in First World War 411 ; in German navy 431 ; Britain and France (1919) 434 ; Connaught Rangers 452 ; Italy (1920) 438
Mycenaean civilisation 17 , 32 , 38 ; collapse of 45–46
Myrivilis, Stratis 412
Nagy, Imre 565
Nambikwara 15
Nanking controlled by T’ai-p’ing 361
Narodniki 401
Naseby, Battle of 211
Nasser, Abdel 559
National Assembly in French Revolution 277 , 279–280 , 283 ; composition of (1789) 279 ; composition of (1871) 370
National Guard, Parisian in French Revolution 280–281 , 283 ; in 1848 225 , 338–340 ; in 1870–71 369–370 , 373
National Liberal Party, German 388 , 433 , 486
National markets establishment of 235
National state features 172–173 ; rise of and world market system 266–267 ; at close of twentieth century 599
National Workshops of 1848 338–339
Nationalism two forms in late nineteenth century 389
Native Americans early European attitudes to 253
Naval arms race Britain and Germany at beginning of twentieth century 398
Navigational devices 179
Navy, British treatment of pressed men 250–251
Nazi regime role of big business and military in 490
Nazis 442 , 465 ; putsch of (1923) 483 ; in 1920s
483 ; difference from other bourgeois parties 483 ; growth after 1929 484 ; social composition of 484 ; ideology 484 ; racist ideology and requirements of German capitalism 521–522 ; policy in occupied Europe 528 ; extermination of Jews 530–532 ; propaganda, role of anti-Semitism in 531
Neanderthals 5
Necker, Jacques 243 , 279
Nehru, Jawaharlal 455 , 551
Nenni, Pietro on character of Italian Socialist Party 442
Neoliberalism 588
Neolithic Revolution 11 , 18
Neo-Platonism 239
Nero 81
New Deal main measures 513 ; enthusiasm for 513 ; financial orthodoxy of 514 ; limited effect of 515 ; Democrats and culture 518
New Economic Policy (Soviet Union) 472 , 474–475
New Guinea 15
New Kingdom, Egyptian 41
New Lanark 318
New Model Army 211–215 ; class background of leading officers 216
New monarchies 173–174 , 178
New Philosophers 576
New physics of seventeenth century 239
New Stone Age 16
New Testament 93 ; contradictions in 87–88 , 95 , 97 ; compilation 95
New Zealand Polynesian settlement of 15
Newport Rising 324
News Chronicle (newspaper) 523
Newspapers in American Revolution 271 ; in French Revolution 281 ; taxes on 389 ; Paris (1840s) 338 ; mass 381 , 389
Newton, Isaac 240 ; and Book of Revelation 237
Nicaragua 566 ; Contra terrorism in 600
Nigeria conquest of 395
Night of Barricades 581
Night of the Long Knives 490
Nike riots 121
Nile Valley and Byzantine Empire 119
Nin, Andrés murdered, 507 , 510
1984 (Orwell) 566 , 572
1968 578–583
Nippur 19
Nkrumah, Kwame 556
Nobles English and church lands 204 ; Bohemian 199–200
Noblesse d’epée 193 , 288
Noblesse de robe 193 , 288–289
Non-violence in India 455
Norman, Montagu 482
Norsemen 104 (see Vikings )
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 545–546 ; war against Serbia 601
North Korea 562
Northern Expedition 457–458
Northern Ireland 453
Northern Star (newspaper) 324
Noske, Gustav 434 , 440
Novotný, Antonín 579
Nubia ancient 40
Nuclear weapons 544 (see also Atom bomb, Hiroshima and Nagasaki )
Nuer 12
Obregón, Álvaro 461
Occupation of the factories Italy (1920) 438–439 , 443
Occupied Europe attitude of ruling classes towards Nazis 528 ; strikes 528–529 (see also Poland, France, Italy, Greece )
O’Connell, Daniel 343
October 1934 501
Odessa 1919 435
Officers, election of in French Revolution 284
O’Higgins, Bernardo 314
Old Kingdom 32
Old Testament 40 , 45 , 124
Oligarchies, urban in Reformation Germany 184–186 , 189–190
Oligarchy in ancient Greece 66 ; in Latin America in nineteenth century 314
Oliver, Juan García 437
Olmecs 20 ; class division among 23–24
Olympic Games ancient 64
Omdurman battle and massacre 395
Opium Wars 359–360
Optimus 76
Orange Order founded 308–309
Orange, Prince of 195
Orangeism 453 ; and Conservatism in late-nineteenth-century Britain 388
Orangemen import guns for Germany 451
Ordine Nuovo (journal) 438
Oresme, Nicole 238
Organisation armée secrète (OAS) terror group 557
Organization of Latin American Solidarity 570
Orwell, George 504 , 566 ; Burmese Days 358 ; on Barcelona in 1936 500 (see also 1984 )
Osiris cult of 93
Ostrogoths 85 , 104
Ottoman Empire expansion in sixteenth century 220 ; extent 362 ; internal structure 362 ; decline 362 ; loses territory to Austria and Russia 355 ; growth of minority nationalisms within 389 (see also Balkans )
Oudh, Kingdom of 356
Over-production 331
Overton, Richard 212
Owen, Robert 317 ; on productivity of factories 318 ; influence of 327
Owen, Wilfred on attitude of conscripts in First World War 411
Oxen in agriculture 18 , 46
Paganism social roots of 91 ; Roman 91
Paine, Tom background in England 272 ; Common Sense 272 ; impact on American Revolution 272–273
Painting and sculpture in Renaissance 176
Pakistan founding of 553 ; breaks in two 554 ; languages of 554
Palestine ancient 40–41 , 45 , 47 , 88–90 , 92 ; Britain promises Jewish national home 558 ; Arab Revolt of mid-1930s 558 ; partition of 559
Palmer, A Mitchell 464
Palmer, Thomas 307
Palmerston, Lord 363
Pamphlets in American Revolution 271
Panama 566–567 , 600
Pankhurst, Christabel 390
Pankhurst, Emmeline 390
Pankhurst, Sylvia 391
Paper-making invention and spread of 108 , 118 , 130
Papen, Franz von 485–488 ; attitude to Hitler 488
Papon, Maurice 539
Papua New Guinea 14 , 26
Paris Commune of 1871 election and organisation 371 ; ideas within 372–373 ; destruction 373–374
Paris Commune commemoration (1936) 495
Paris Exhibition of 1867 368
Paris, Siege of 1870–71 369
Park, Chun-hee 562
Park, Mungo 394
Parks, Rosa 578–579
Parlements 286 , 289
Parliament British in eighteenth century 266 ; German and Austrian in late nineteenth century 343 ; domesticates workers’ representatives 390
Parliamentary Army in English Civil War 209
Partition, India horrific logic of 552–553
Partition, Ireland 453
Passive revolution (1989) 593
Pastoralists 15 , 45 , 124 ; and trade 38
Pataliputra 49
Patriarchy 30
Patricians 72–74
Paul, Saint 92
Pearl Harbor 525
Pearse, Pádraig 451
Peasant revolts China 60 , 108–109 , 115–116 , 223–225 ; in Roman Empire 84–85 ; in Byzantine Empire 120 ; in medieval Europe 150–151 , 154–155 ; and townspeople 151 ; revolutionary France 280 ; in 1848 337 ; Russia (1917) 417 ; Spain (1918–20) 436
Peasant War, German 186–190
Peasants, dependent 23 , 27 ; in first civilisation 35–36 ; in Roman Empire 84–86 (see also Serfs, Serfdom )
Peasants in ancient Rome 73–74 ; in pre-imperial and early imperial China 57 , 59–60 ; in medieval China 107–108 ; in Byzantine Empire 120 ; conditions in Sung China 114 ; in Mongol China 115 ; in early medieval Europe, unpaid labour 140 ; French and wars of religion 192 ; Bohemian and Thirty Years War 200 ; in eighteenth-century England 235 ; in Mogul India 226–227 ; in late-eighteenth-century France 287–288 ; in Manchu China 224–225 ; French after revolution 301 ; Spanish in war against Napoleonic Spain 311–312 ; after first Opium War 360 ; Russian 368 ; effect on of First World War 412 ; Russian in 1917 424 ; in southern Europe until 1960s 579
Peloponnesian War 68
Pennsylvania lack of revolutionary traditions before 1776 265 ; 266 , 270 ; assembly against independence 271 ; overthrow of assembly 272–273
People’s Communes 573–574
People’s Liberation Army 554
Perón, Juan 519 ; return of to Argentina 584
Perry, Matthew Commander of US Navy 366
Persia fifth and sixth centuries AD 124
Persians
ancient 40
Peru destruction caused by Spanish conquest 171 (see also Incas )
Peter, Hugh 210–211
Peterloo massacre 323
Petrograd size of factories in 1914 419
Pfeiffer, Heinrich in Peasant War 189
Pharaohs 45 , 90 ; god-like attributes 26
Pharisees 90
Philadelphia before American Revolution 266
Philip II of Spain 195 , 204
Philip the Arab 98
Philippines 393 , 525 , 567
Phillips, Wendell 349 ; attack on Lincoln and McClellan 350
Philo of Alexandria 91
Philosophy in ancient India 52 ; ancient Chinese 58 ; Greek 69 ; Arab translations of Greek 131 (see also Enlightenment )
Philosophy of Right (Hegel) 327
Phoenicians 64 , 72
Phonograph 381
Picasso, Pablo 467
Picture Post (magazine) 523
Piedmont, Monarchy absorbs rest of Italy 343
Pinochet, Augusto 585
Pitt, William, the Younger does U-turn over slavery issue and invades Saint-Domingue 311
Pizarro, Francisco 162 , 168–170 , 182 , 237
Pizarro, Hernando account of massacre of Incas 168–169
Plagues 105 , 150 , 190 , 237
Plantation owners in North American colonies 266
Plato political beliefs 68 ; philosophy 69 ; translations in medieval Europe 145
Plebeians 73–74
Plekhanov, Georgi support for war (1914) 407
Pliny the Elder 88
Plough first use of 18 , 26 , 34 ; ox-drawn 46 ; and role of women 18 , 29 ; heavy wheeled 142
Poison gas 524
Poland eighteenth century 236 ; nobility in mid-nineteenth century 337 ; revolts against Russian rule in 1830s and 1860s 344 ; 1939 partition 524 , 529 ; under Nazi occupation 529 (see Warsaw Uprising ); ‘People’s government’ 540 ; ‘Spring in October’ (1956) 564 ; student movement of 1968 589 ; workers’ protests and strikes (1969–81) 589–590
Police forces establishment in Britain 323
Polisensky quoted 198–199 , 201
Political economy 328 , 331 (see also Smith, Adam and Ricardo, David )
Polybus of Corinth 65
Polynesians 15
Pompey 80
Poor Man’s Guardian (newspaper) 323
Poor Law Amendment Act 322
Poor relief 321
Popular Front, France 480 , 495–498 ; rally of July 1936 497 ; government of 1936; composition 495
Popular Front, Spain 502 , 506
Popular Front politics in US 517
Population Teotihuacan 20 ; decline in European Dark Ages 104 ; Yangtze Valley 110 ; decline in fourteenth-century Europe 149 ; growth in fifteenth-century Europe 155 ; indigenous of Americas’ decline 250 ; collapse in Hispaniola after Spanish conquest 164 ; collapse in Peru with Spanish rule 170 ; England sixteenth century 204 ; growth and decline in Ming China 222 ; growth in Manchu China 224 ; Africa, decline after 1750 256 ; slave population in Americas 249 , 251