A People’s History of the World
Page 93
Populism in US in late nineteenth century 353
Populist governments in 1930s and 1940s 519
Portugal fifteenth-century voyages along African coast 156 ; supplanted by Holland 195 ; under Spanish rule 196 , 201 (see also Revolution, Portuguese )
Portuguese Empire beginning of 219 ; end of 557
Positivism 385–386 , 392
Postmodernism 589
Potosí mines and city 171
Potsdam conference 536
Pottery, first 10
POUM (Worker’s Party of Marxist Unification) 505 , 507
Poverty in India under British rule 357–358 ; physical effects on working class in nineteenth-century Britain 382 ; in early 1930s 470 ; Latin America (1990) 594 ; Africa (1987) 594 ; blamed on ‘fecklessness’ of poor 321
Poznań revolt of 1956 564
Preachers radical in English Civil War 210–211
Preis, Art on US sit-ins of 1935–37 515
Presbyterians in English Civil War 209 , 213–215
Presbyters 96 , 209
Pride, Thomas 215–216
Priestesses 30
Priestley, Joseph 243 ; house ransacked 303 , 306
Priests first 19–20 ; as first rulers 26–27 ; as first ruling class 36 , 45 ; in Byzantium 121
Primitive communism 3–4 , 9
Princes, German 197 , 200 , 202 ; and Reformation 177
Principate Roman 81
Printing invention in China 111 ; not used in Abbasid Empire 135 ; in Europe 179 ; social impact of 179
Private property 8 , 12 , 27 ; rise of 28 ; in ancient China 54
Profits produced by labour in Adam Smith 259–260
Progressive People’s Party, German 433
Proletarian art 518
Proletarian Cultural Revolution 574–576 ; real character of 574–575 ; real causes of 576 ; illusions of much of left outside China in 576
Proletarian novels 471
Proletariat notion of in Marx and Engels 333
Proletarii 73
Protectionism inter-war years 470
Protestantism social base of 141 , 191 , 240 ; and capitalism 182 ; and literacy 240
Protestants executed in eighteenth-century France 244
Protestants, Irish in eighteenth century 307 ; middle class in 1790s 307–308 ; founding of Orange Order 308–309
Protoliterate period 12 , 22
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph social teaching 372
Proudhonists and Paris Commune 372–373
Provisional government, Russian (1917) 414 ; reasons for failure in 1917 416–418 ; support for seizure of Istanbul 417 ; rejection of right of nationalities to self-determination 417 ; refuses to allow peasants to divide big estates 417
Prussian parliament of 1848 338
PSOE (Spanish Socialist Worker’s Party) 391
Psychoanalysis 467
Ptolemy, Claudius 70 , 52 , 238
Pullman strike 398
Punjab partition in 1947 553
Putney Debates in English Revolution 212–213
Putting-out system 156–157 , 180–181 , 235 , 337 , 368
Pym, John 207
Pyramids 17 , 32 ; builders 37
Pythagoreanism 239
Quakers of Pennsylvania 265 , 270
Quantum physics 467
Quetzalcoatl 167
Quiroga, Haracio 503
Quit India campaign 552
Rabelais, François 177
Race fallacy of myths of supremacy 5 , 14 , 141
Racism rise of 252–254 ; non-existence in ancient and medieval times 252 ; European against peoples of all other continents 355 ; Christian version 253 ; ‘scientific’ 253–254 , 385–386 ; in British India 357–358 ; in Northern States of US 348 ; integral to US capitalism after Reconstruction 354 ; in long boom 550
Radcliffe, Cyril 553
Radek, Karl on Irish Rising 451 ; on Hitler ‘defeat’ in 1933 489
Radical Party, France 493–498
Radio spread of 463
Radio Free Europe 564
Railways first 319 ; spread of 379
Rainsborowe, William calls for adult male suffrage in English Revolution 212–213
Rajk, László 545
Raskob, John J 464
Raspail, Fraçois-Vincent 341
Rasputin, Grigori 414
Rationalism 242
Ray, Nicholas 517
Reaction, intellectual against Enlightenment after French Revolution 315–317
Reagan, Ronald 591 ; and astrology 241
Real wages fall in industrial countries after 1900 400 ; fall in First World War 409
Recessions 1974–76 586 ; 1980–82 587 (see also Slump )
Reconstruction, radical in US 352
Red Army 1918 427
Red Guards 575
Red industrialists 472
Red referendum 489
Red terror (1918) reasons for 428 ; difference with Stalin’s terror after 1929 428
Red Turbans 115
Reform Act (1832) agitation over 323 , 386
Reformation, religious issues involved 183 ; in Germany, urban 184–186 , 189–190 ; Peasant 186–190 ; Princes’ 184 , 190 ; English 203–204 ; 237 (see also, Luther, Calvin, Protestantism )
Refrigerators 463 , 548–549
Reichsbanner 485
Reichstag fire 489
Relativity, theory of 467
Religion origin of organised 27 ; universalistic 47 , 51 , 91 ; Aztec 166 ; Arab pre-Islamic 123–124 (see also Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism )
Religious Wars, France 178
Remarque, Erich Maria 411
Renaissance 52 , 175–178 , 237 ; beyond Italy 176 ; and papacy 197 ; and Reformation 184
Renault, Paris occupation of (1936) 495 ; strike of 1938 499 ; strike of 1947 545
Rents money in medieval Europe 144
Repression British against United Irishmen 308 ; June 1848 340 ; Vienna (1848) 340 ; after smashing of Paris Commune 373–374 ; Shanghai (1927) 459 ; of German left under Nazis 490 ; in British India during Second World War 552 ; Greece (1945) 538 ; 1946 544 ; after crushing of Hungarian Revolution 565
Republican Party (US) and American Civil War 345 , 348 , 352 ; by end of nineteenth century 354 ; 388
Republicanism, Irish 451
Republikanischer Schutzbund socialist defence corps in Austria 491–493
Resistance movements in Second World War Greece 532–533 ; Italy 533–535 ; France 535–536
Restoration, English 217–218 ; executions 285
Restoration, European of 1814 and 1815 300 , 305
Revolution, American 265–276 ; role of lower-class agitation 268 , 270–271 , 273–274 ; British strategy in 274 ; American military struggle 274–275 ; New York State in 265 , 268 ; New York City in 265 ; violence in 273–274 ; social dimension to 275 ; and blacks 275–276 ; and Native Americans 276 ; 285
Revolution, Cuban 567–568
Revolution, English 203–218 ; origins of 205–208 , 285 ; results of 217–218 ; and rise of capitalism 218 ; and breakdown of censorship 240
Revolution, French 277–302 ; chronology of 278 ; roots of 285–290 ; clergy 286 ; class forces in 290–292 , 296–297 , 300–302 ; economic and social effects of 300 ; ideas turned against bourgeoisie 325 ; impact on Ireland 307 ; influence on middle classes of 1840s 337
Revolution from above in pre-imperial China 56
Revolution, Hungarian (1956) 564–566 ; character of 565–566
Revolution in the West (1918–20) arguments over possibility 439–440
Revolution, Iranian (1979) 597–598
Revolutions of 1830 325
Revolution of 1848 335–341 ; in France 335 , 338–340 ; in Germany 335–336 , 340–341 ; in Italy 335–336 , 340–341 ; in Prague 335 , 340 ; in Hungary 337 , 340–341 ; impact in Britain 324
Revolution, Portuguese (1974–75) 585–586
Revolution, Romanian (1989) 592
Revolution, Russia
n (1905) 401
Revolution, Russian (1917) 412–423
Revolution, Spanish 1931 501 ; 1936 503–506
Revolutionary Committees Spain (1936) 503
Rheinische Zeitung (newspaper) 327
Rhineland in 1830s and 1840s 327–328 ; in 1840s 337
Rhodes, Cecil 396
Rhodesia, Southern 558 (see Zimbabwe )
Ricardo, David 260–262 , 317 ; on machinery 260 ; ideas turned against capitalism 323
Richard the Lionheart 147
Riots by workmen in Ming China 223
Rising, Berlin January 1919 432
Risings of 1848 335
Rivera, Miguel Primo de 500–501
Roads in Ch’in China 54 ; Roman 83 ; in Europe early eighteenth century 235 ; in late eighteenth century 318
Robeson, Paul 518 , 546
Robespierre, Maximilien 281 ; opposes war 282 ; 283 ; 288 ; arguments against war 304 ; allies with lower classes 292 ; opposes capital punishment supported by Girondins 294 ; justifies punitive measures 295 ; acts against Girondins 296 ; turns against left 296 ; executes Danton 296 ; vacillates over continuation of terror 298 ; falls from power 298–299 ; warns revolution is destroyed 299 ; social and political attitudes 292
Robotnik (newspaper) 590
Rodinson, Maxime quoted on Islamic capitalism 130
Rodzianko, Mikhail 414
Roll, Eric on class interests represented by Adam Smith 259
Roma Gypsies in death camps 539 , 532
Romania involvement in Balkan Wars (1912–13) 403 ; national minorities 435
Romanticism 317
Rome ancient 71–86 ; technical advances in 71–72 ; early growth of city 71 ; conquest of Italy 72 ; urban poor 78–79 ; reasons republic came to an end 80–81 ; scale of empire 71 ; rise of the provincial ruling classes 82 ; empire’s decline and fall 83–86 , 103 ; sack of 85 , 117 ; size of ruling class 94 ; revolution of 1849 341
Roosevelt, Eleanor 526
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano 513–514 , 516–517 ; and union leaders 516 ; policy before 1941 524
Rosenburg, Ethel and Julius 546
Rothermere, Lord supports Blackshirts 483
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 243 ; criticisms of Voltaire 244 ; ‘noble savage’ 253 ; 258 ; impact of ideas 272 ; 281 , 291
Roux, Jacques 281
Royal Society roots in English Revolution 241
Ruhr crisis (1923) 442–443 ; rising aborted 443 ; 465 , 483
Ruhr industrialists addressed by Hitler 487
Ruhr Red Army (1920) 437
Rush, Benjamin 272
Russia expansion in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 220 ; conquest of Caucasus 362 ; push towards Istanbul 362 ; abolition of serfdom 368 ; Russia-Japanese War 403 ; desire to conquer Istanbul 416 ; (see also Revolution, Russian ) effects of economic crisis 424 ; foreign intervention 427 , 428 , 435 ; White Terror 428 ; devastation caused by intervention and civil war 446 ; degeneration of revolution 471–474 ; 1925–28 466 (see Stalinism, Soviet Union ); policy towards China in 1920s 458–456 ; occupation of Afghanistan 598 ; collapse of bloc in 1989 540 ; intervention in Georgian and Tajik civil wars in 1990s 601
Russian socialist movement arguments within in 1905 401–402
Russian-Chinese split (1960s) 573
Russo-Finnish War (1939–40) 523
Rwanda-Burundi 397
SA ( Sturmabteilung ) 490 ; numbers 483 ; 486
Sachs, Jeffrey and IMF 596
Saddam Hussein 559 , 599
Sadducees 89
Sahlins, Marshal quoted 6
Saint-Domingue 309–312 see also ( Haiti, Hispaniola )
Saint Monday 321
Saint-Simon, Henri de 317
Salination 132
Sallust on treatment of Plebeians 73 ; on rich and poor in Roman republic 75 ; on civil wars of first century BC 77
Samarkand 133
Samurai 365–367
San Francisco waterfront strike 513
San Martin, José de 313
Sans-culottes 281 , 283 , 292–294 , 296–299 ; importance 301 ; limitations 302 , 323 , 335
Santillan, Diego Abad de 504
Saqqara 32
Sarajevo 1914 403 ; October-November 1918 430
Saratov Menshevik-Social Revolutionary government 427
Sargon 32
Saturninus 77
Saudi Arabia US and British clashes over 522 , 526 ; role in Afghanistan 598
Saul of Tarsus 92 (see Paul, Saint )
Saxons 104
Say, Jean-Baptiste 262
Sceptics 69
Schacht, Hjalmar 482 , 486 , 488
Scheidemann, Philipp 425 , 440 ; proclaims republic 431
Schleicher, Kurt von 487
Scholasticism in ancient societies 34–35 ; in medieval India 53 ; European 145 , 148 , 176
Schooling, compulsory 384
Science in ancient India 52 ; Greek in ancient Alexandria 69 ; Arabic 131
Science and superstition in early modern period 237–241
Scientific advance in Dutch republic and post-revolutionary England 240
Scientific management 383
Scientism 385–386 , 392
Scotland and English Civil War 206–207 , 209 , 211 ; occupation by New Model Army 241 ; united with England 234 ; feudalism in Highlands 257 ; Enlightenment 257–258
Scott, Paul Jewel in the Crown 358
Scott, Walter 317
Scottish Constitutional Convention 307
Scottish Friends of the People 307
Scouts, Boy and imperialist nationalism 389
Sea Peoples 45
Second Front 526
Second International 391
Second World War first months of 522 ; character of 523–527
Sectarian Protestant mobs 452
Sects, religious in Mogul India 228
Security Council of UN 543
Segregation in Southern States of US 352–353
Self-limiting revolution 590
Senate Roman 73 , 76–78
September massacres 284
Serbia independence 362 ; involvement in Balkan Wars (1912–13) 403
Serbian socialists oppose war (1914) 407
Serfdom European, rise of 86 ; impact on methods of production 143–144 ; 187 ; in Bohemia after Thirty Years War 201 ; abolished in Russia 368
Serfdom, Second 157 , 190 , 182 , 236
Serfs in Sparta 65 , 140
Serge, Victor life of 510 ; quoted on war enthusiasm 405 ; on revolutionary democracy of 1917–18 427 ; decay of that democracy 428
Sermon on the Mount 88
Serrati, Giacinto Menotti 441
Servetus, Michael 194
Sétif 1945 539
Seven Years War 233 , 288 ; importance of colonies to 266
Sewage systems 380
Sextant 131
Shachtman, Max 566
Shaduf 41
Shah Jahan 220 , 227
Shah of Iran 598
Shakespeare, William 177
Shang Dynasty 45 , 54
Shanghai 1927 459 ; strikes of 1967 575
Shariah original significance 130
Sharif Hussein 558
Shaw, George Bernard 385
Sheffield Constitutional Society 306 , 307
Shelley, Percy Bysshe 316
Sherman, William, General 351 , 353
Shi’ites first 128 , 130 , 134
Shift working systems 383
Shlyapnikov, Alexander quoted on workers’ attitude (1914) 405
Shogun 365
Shop stewards across Europe in First World War 410
Show trials 545 (see also Moscow Trials )
Sicily eighteenth century 236 ; liberation from king of Naples 343
Siege of Mafeking used to build climate of nationalism 389
Sikhism origins of 228
Sikhs 356 ; revolts 228
Silesia 1919–21 435
Silone, Ignazio Bread and Wine 533
&n
bsp; Sinatra, Frank 518
Sinn Féin 452
Sit-ins US (1935–37) 515
Six Counties 452 (see also Northern Ireland )
Slánský, Rudolf 545
Slave derivation of word 250
Slave labour in Second World War 528 , 530–531 ; Stalinist 563
Slavery first evidence of in different parts of world 22–23 ; and technical advance 66 , 83–84 , 103 ; Roman, scale of 75 ; effect on free labour 75 ; and early Christianity 94 ; decline in later Roman Empire 84 ; in Byzantine Empire 120 ; in Abbasid Empire 132 ; in early medieval Europe 86 , 104 ; decline in feudal Europe 143–144 ; medieval 249 ; Columbus and 164 ; and tobacco planting 250 ; after American Revolution 276 ; in Saint-Domingue 310 ; in US 345 , 347 ; growth in first half of nineteenth century 346 (see also American Civil War ); non-racist apologies for 252 ; and rise of racism 253–354
Slaves Roman treatment of 75 , 82 ; white 249–250 ; conditions in Americas 249 , military 133 (see also Mamlukes )
Slave revolts obstacle to in ancient Greece 65–66 ; in ancient Rome 76 , 78–9 ; in Abbasid Empire 135 ; in American colonies 266 ; in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) 310
Slave trade 249 , 254–256
Slavs conquer Balkans 119 ; lose Balkans 120
Slovakia in late nineteenth century 343
Slovenia in late nineteenth century 343
Slump, interwar decline in output 469 ; decline in world trade 470 ; effect on Third World 469–430
Smalkaldic war 178
Smallpox impact in Americas 164–165
Smith, Adam 179–180 , 245 , 257 , 266 , 317 ; and slavery 259 , 346 ; Wealth of Nations , main ideas in 258–262 ; influence on Marx 261 ; ideas turned against capitalism 323 ; on China 355
Smiths, metal 46
Snowden, Philip 482
Soboul, Albert quoted on Great Terror 297 ; on sans-culottes 302
Social Darwinism 385
Social democracy rise in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries 391
Social Democratic Federation (SDF) 391
Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) electoral successes in 1880s and 1890s 391 ; debates within in 1890s 392–393 ; supports First World War 407 ; 1918–19 431–433 ; 1920 437 ; led government and slump 482 ; Prussian government shoots down Communists 485 ; and rise of Nazis 484–486 ; says Hitler’s government ‘constitutional’ 488
Social democrats in long boom 548–549