The Indian Space Programme
Page 71
[819]. Ibid
[820]. 2003 was a good year for the Chinese space programme. Not only did it get the approval for its first Moon mission, but that Moon mission was also part of a three-phase Chinese Lunar Exploration Program. Orbiter missions would be followed by landers and rovers and eventually sample return missions. It was also the same year that China successfully completed its first human spaceflight mission. See https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/c-missions/chang-e-1
[821]. Just as the USSR denied that it was in a race to the Moon with the US during the 1960s, India too publicly denied participating in a race with China. For example, see http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/sep/16/20050916-102917-9131r/. China did get to the Moon before India. However, India got to Mars in 2014 before China. ISRO declared that the remarkably successful MOM was a swift response to the failure of China's Yinghuo-1 mission to Mars. A Book that Reveals India’s Journey to ‘Mars and Beyond’. 17 November 2014. Zee News. Retrieved from http://zeenews.india.com/news/sci-tech/a-book-that-reveals-indias-journey-to-mars-and-beyond_1500017.html. China, in turn, was perhaps motivated to go to the Moon following Japan’s success in 2003.
[822]. ISRO published a great deal of material on Chandrayaan-1, unlike other ISRO missions. Many of the details in this chapter come from Datta, J. and Chakravarty S. C. 2004. Chandrayaan-1: India’s First Mission to the Moon. ISRO. P5. https://web.archive.org/web/20091012220210/http://www.isro.org/publications/pdf/Chandrayaan-1-booklet.pdf.
[823]. In 2009, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) selected ISRO's Chandrayaan-1mission as one of the recipients of its annual AIAA awards. See http://www.liquisearch.com/chandrayaan-1/awards_for_chandrayaan-1
[824]. ISRO. 2015. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India: Harper Collins India. P417
[825]. The Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC) was built within the Byalalu site perimeter. The ISRO/NASA MoU, under which the NASA M3 instrument was delivered to lunar orbit, also included a replica of NASA's M3 Data Processing Subsystem a Payload Operating Centre (POC) workstation to ISSDC. NASA and ISRO. 2006. Memorandum of Understanding between the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) on Cooperation Concerning NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) Instrument on ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 Mission. 09/05/2006.
[826]. Interview with the author. Director of the ISRO Satellite Centre SK Shivakumar 26 March 2014. See https://astrotalkuk.org/episode-70-indias-deep-space-network-and-isro-satellite-centre/
[827]. Ibid
[828]. Establishing a total cost of space missions can be far from clear. Although Byalalu is critical to other missions, such as MOM, its cost is accounted only once against Chandrayaan-1. Since then, an 11-m antenna has also been established at Byalalu, but it is unclear against which mission its costs are recorded. 32-M Antenna Set up to Track Chandrayaan I. 16 December 2007. The Hindu. Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/32m-antenna-set-up-to-track-chandrayaan-i/article1968628.ece.
[829]. With the Upcoming Launch of “Chandrayaan I” Moon Mission, India Aims to Be a Global Player in Space. 3. October 2008. WikiLeaks. Retrieved from https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08NEWDELHI2641_a.html
[830]. This number of 126, as with all statistics, is open to interpretation. Not all these missions were successful; some barely managed to leave the launch pad. Some were fly-bys, and the Moon just happened to be on the way. Chandrayaan-1for example, is listed twice, orbiter and the Moon Impact Probe.
[831]. Spurman, J. 2010. Lunar Transfer Trajectories. Retrieved from http://www.book.xlibx.info/bo-other/3569352-1-lunar-transfer-trajectories-spurmann-doc-10-02-version-date-feb.php.
[832]. This is the result of mass concentrations (or Mascons) that appear randomly below the visible surface of the Moon. Some parts of the lunar interior are denser than others. As a result, the gravitational force of the Moon is not uniform. Bhandari, Narendra. 2004. Scientific Challenges of Chandrayaan-1. The Indian Lunar Polar Orbiter Mission. Current Science 86 (11): 1489–98. P1496. Neil Armstrong was also concerned by the potential impact of Mascons on Apollo 11’s ability to navigate to its precise landing point. Hansen, James R. 2006. First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong. Simon and Schuster. P382. Astronaut Al Worden, who spent a week orbiting the Moon in Apollo 15 command module, was able to detect and map these Mascons by measuring the changes in the spacecraft during his 74 lunar orbits in 1975.
[833]. Vighnesam N. V. et al. 2009. Precise Orbit Computation of India’s First Lunar Mission Chandrayaan-1. Using Accelerometer and Tracking Data during Early Phase. Retrieved from http://issfd.org/ISSFD_2009/OrbitDeterminationII/Vighnesam1.pdf.
[834]. PROCAD showed a maximum position difference of 0.32% while the minimum position difference was as little as 0.0002 %. Vighnesam N. V. et al. 2009. Precise Orbit Computation of India’s First Lunar Mission Chandrayaan-1. Using Accelerometer and Tracking Data during Early Phase. Retrieved from http://issfd.org/ISSFD_2009/OrbitDeterminationII/Vighnesam1.pdf. P12
[835]. ISRO. 2015. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India: Harper Collins India. P430
[836]. India Aims to Map Moon in 2007 Voyage. 16 September 2005. The Washington Times. Retrieved from http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/sep/16/20050916-102917-9131r/
[837]. ISRO. 2015. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India: Harper Collins India. P187
[838]. The target mode used a compact three-mirror f/2.7 optical telescope with a field of view of 12°, which presents strips of 40 km width from 100 km. For details, see http://pds-imaging.jpl.nasa.gov/data/m3/CH1M3_0003/CATALOG/INST.CAT.
[839]. NASA and ISRO. 2006. Memorandum of Understanding between the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) on Cooperation Concerning NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) Instrument on ISRO’s Chandrayaan-1Mission. P4
[840]. Lundeen, S. et al. 22 November 2011. Data Product Software Interface Specification. Version 9.10. Brown University. P18
[841]. Ibid
[842]. Isaacson, Peter, Sebastien Besse, Noah Petrol, Jeff Nettles and the M3 Team. November 2011. M3 Overview and Working with M3 Data. NASA/ISRO. Retrieved from http://pds-imaging.jpl.nasa.gov/documentation/Isaacson_M3_Workshop_Final.pdf.
[843]. M3 collected data during five observational sessions: 18/11/08 – 24/01/09 119 images, 25/01/09 – 24/02/09 247 images, 15/04/09 – 27/04/09 197 images, 13/05/09 – 16/05/09 20 images and 20/5/09 – 16/08/09 375 images but from an orbit of 200 km. Isaacson, Peter, Sebastien Besse, Noah Petro, Jeff Nettles and the M3 Team. November 2011. M3 Overview and Working with M3 Data. NASA/ISRO. P13. Retrieved from http://pds-imaging.jpl.nasa.gov/documentation/Isaacson_M3_Workshop_Final.pdf.
[844]. The TMC captured images of northern Australia while 7,000 km from the Earth. See http://www.isro.gov.in/update/31-oct-2008/chandrayaan-1-camera-tested
[845]. Bhandari, Narendra. 2004. Scientific Challenges of Chandrayaan-1. The Indian Lunar Polar Orbiter Mission. Current Science 86 (11): 1489–98. P1492
[846]. Goswami, J. N. 2010. An Overview of The Chandrayaan-1 Mission. In 41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, March 1–5, 2010. Retrieved from http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2010/pdf/1591.pdf.
[847]. ISRO. 2015. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India: Harper Collins India. P437
[848]. Athiray, P. S. January 2016. The First Detection of Sodium on Lunar Surface from the Chandrayaan-1 X-Ray Spectrometer (C1XS). PLANEX Newsletter. Volume 6(1). Retrieved from https://www.prl.res.in/~rajiv/planexnews/newarticles/Volume%20-6,%20Issue-1.7-10.pdf. P6
[849] These 11-year cycles have been studied for over three centuries. Instances, where the cycle has not performed as expected, are not unusual. Cycle 24, which started in 2008, has been t
he weakest in 100 years. See http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/the-weakest-solar-cycle-in-100-years/
[850]. ESA. 26 January 2009. European Lunar X-ray Camera More Sensitive Than Expected. Spaceref. Retrieved from http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=27434
[851]. ESA. 19 October 2009. How the Moon Produces Its Own Water. Science Daily. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091015091605.htm
[852]. A signal would be transmitted from Mini-RF on Chandrayaan-1 and received by Mini-RF on LRO. Analysis of the returned backscatter signal as a function of the phase angle of the same area on the Moon would provide potentially the most definitive remote technique for discriminating between ice and rock units. Bussey, D. et al. 2008. Mini-RF Imaging Radars for Exploring the Lunar Poles. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX. Also, see https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/l/lro
[853]. The following paper provides a detailed analysis of all the data collected by RADOM. Dachev, T., B.T. Tomov, Yu. N. Matviichuk, P. S. Dimitrov, S.V. Vadawale, J. N. Goswami, G. De Angelis and V. Girish. September 2011. An Overview of RADOM Results for Earth and Moon Radiation Environment on Chandrayaan-1 Satellite. Advances in Space Research 48 (5): 779–91. doi: 10.1016/j.asr.2011.05.009. P11
[854]. Goswami, J. N. 2010. An Overview of the Chandrayaan-1 Mission. In 41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, March 1–5, 2010. Retrieved from http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2010/pdf/1591.pdf.
[855]. This orbit-raising manoeuvre was initially presented as an action to save fuel and get a better view of the lunar surface, but in reality, it was to help the spacecraft manage its temperature. Moon’s Heat Hastened Indian Probe’s Demise. 9 September 2009. New Scientist. Retrieved from https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20327253.500-moons-heat-hastened-indian-probes-demise/
[856]. Hybrid DC-DC Converters. 2005. Modular Devices Inc. P153 http://www.mdipower.com/pdfcatalog/MDICat_06.pdf
[857]. Moon’s Heat Hastened Indian Probe’s Demise. 9 September 2009. New Scientist. Retrieved from https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20327253.500-moons-heat-hastened-indian-probes-demise/
[858]. Chandrayaan-1Mission Terminated. 31 August 2009. The Hindu. Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/article216881.ece.
[859] Using Earth based instruments NASA located Chandrayaan-1 in lunar orbit in mid-2017. ‘New NASA Radar Technique Finds Lost Lunar Spacecraft’. NASA/JPL, https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=6769.
[860]. ISRO. 14 November 2007. India and Russia Sign an Agreement on Chandrayaan 2. Retrieved from http://www.isro.gov.in/update/14-nov-2007/india-and-russia-sign-agreement-chandrayaan-2
[861]. Laxman, Srinivas. 6 February 2012. India’s Chandrayaan-2 Moon Mission Likely Delayed After Russian Probe Failure. Asian Scientist. Retrieved from http://www.asianscientist.com/2012/02/topnews/india-chandrayaan-2-moon-mission-delayed-after-russian-probe-failure-lev-zelyony-2012/
[862]. A spacecraft is powered by a battery charged by solar panels. Where mission profile prevents access to the Sun, for example, the lunar surface where the night lasts for 14 days or missions that venture away from the Sun to outer planets where the sunlight is weaker, an alternative power supply is required. Radioisotope Thermal Generators (a radioactive material that produces heat through natural radioactive decay) have been used by NASA and the former USSR in the past. India currently does not have a RTG provision for spacecraft. NASA's rover Curiosity operating on the surface of Mars since 6 August 2012 is fitted with a 5-kg supply of Plutonium 238 Dioxide. It can produce 100W of electricity with an expected lifetime of about 14 years. Sharma, R. 5 January 2016. ISRO Puts Off Nuclear Powered Space Mission. The New Indian Express. Retrieved from http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/ISRO-Puts-Off-Nuclear-Powered-Space-Mission/2016/01/05/article3213005.
[863]. Successful Commercial Launches Boost ISRO’s Reputation in 2015. 29 December 2015. Business Standard. Retrieved from http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/successful-commercial-launches-boost-isro-s-reputation-in-2015-115122900399_1.html
[864]. ISRO All Ready for Chandrayaan II, says Its Chairman Kiran Kumar. 29 February 2016. The Times of India. Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Isro-all-ready-for-Chandrayaan-II-says-its-chairman-Kiran-Kumar/articleshow/51189668.cms
[865]. Narasimhan, T. E. 8 February 2017. Chandrayaan-2 Launch Planned by First Quarter of 2018. Business Standard. Retrieved from http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/chandrayaan-2-launch-planned-by-first-quarter-of-2018-117020800902_1.html
[866]. The ISRO Chairman describes the mission profile as it was in August 2015. https://youtu.be/1TzL1UTELgc?list=PLsh2R7wQHlMVPIv2Et0Fmc-yV_uAhlhKj
[867]. Rekha, A. R., A. Abdul Shukkoor and P. P. Mohanlal. 2011. Challenges in Navigation System Design for Lunar Soft Landing. Retrieved from http://mohanlalpp.in/mysite/uploads/publish023.pdf. P1
[868]. Interestingly, this phenomenon does occur on the Earth but high in the Ionosphere. Communication between ground stations and satellites can be effected, so the Total Electron Count is continuously monitored on Earth. The TEC measurements provide the correction for the Satellite-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) used in aviation to improve the accuracy of navigation satellite position information. See http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/phenomena/total-electron-content
[869]. ISRO Chairman makes the announcement that there is no race. We Are Not Engaged in Space Race with China: ISRO. 27 October 2013. The Economic Times. Retrieved from http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-10-27/news/43432744_1_mars-orbiter-mission-gslv-mom-spacecraft. That India’s mission to Mars was motivated by the failure of Chinese Mars mission of 2011 was declared publicly in a book published in 2014, while India’s Mars mission was en route to Mars. Bagla, Pallava, and Subhadra Menon. 2014. Reaching for the Stars: India’s Journey to MARS and Beyond. New Delhi: Bloomsbury Publishing India Private Limited.
[870]. Lele, Ajey. 2013. Mission Mars: India’s Quest for the Red Planet. 2014 edition. New Delhi; New York: Springer. P40
[871]. New Scientist, 9 May 2006, “Indian space agency urges US to lift sanctions”. Retrieved from https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9137-indian-space-agency-urges-us-to-lift-sanctions/
[872]. After Chandrayaan, It’s Mission to Mars: Madhavan Nair. 23 November 2008. One India. Retrieved from http://www.oneindia.com/2008/11/23/mission-to-mars-next-ambition-of-isro-madhavan-nair-1227412909.html
[873]. Saini, Angela. 2016. Geek Nation. Hodder Paperbacks. P258. Retrieved from http://www.hodder.co.uk/HodderStoughton/books/detail.page?isbn=9781444710168.
[874]. Major Recommendations Emanating from the 97th Indian Science Congress. 2010. http://sciencecongress.nic.in/pdf/97_indian_science.pdf Kalam’s recommendations are on P8 and P10 Retrieved from
[875]. The cause of the failure remains ambiguous. Officially, it was the result of cosmic rays causing corruption of onboard memory chips. But other scenarios have also been proposed. Oberg, James. 16 February 2012. Did Bad Memory Chips Down Russia’s Mars Probe? IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News.
[876]. Adimurthy, V. 2015. Concept Design and Planning of India’s First Interplanetary Mission. Current Science 109 (6): 1050–54.
[877]. Interestingly, whereas Chandrayaan-1 was known as Chandrayaan-1 from the outset, Mangalyaan was not known as Mangalyaan-1. However, ISRO’s next mission to Mars is known as Mangalayaan-2. Perhaps, this was also a consequence of the haste under which the Mars mission was executed.
[878]. Adimurthy, V. 2015. Concept Design and Planning of India’s First Interplanetary Mission. Current Science 109 (6): 1050–54.
[879]. Initially, it was a faulty main engine valve that impeded its Trans Mars Injection burn, and later, a powerful solar flare in April 2002 damaged its attitude control heating system and communications. Despite these problems, the Japanese engineers succeeded in getting Nozomi to Mars in December 2003, but a planned final main engine burn failure prevented a
Mars Orbit Insertion on arrival, and Nozomi is now out of contact in a solar orbit.
[880]. Udupa, S, December 2014, Key Note address - Mars Orbiter Mission, Caltech, USA http://flightsoftware.jhuapl.edu/files/2014/Presentations/Day-2/Session-1/1-MOM-FSW2014_Key_note_address_17122014.pdf P19
[881]. Some very helpful graphics that illustrate the distances involved and the reasons why spacecraft autonomy is essential for deep space missions. Arya A. S. et al. 2015. Mars Colour Camera: The Payload Characterization/calibration and Data Analysis from Earth Imaging Phase. Current Science 109 (6): 1076–86.
[882]. Arunan, S. and Satish, R. 2015. Mars Orbiter Mission Spacecraft and Its Challenges. Current Science 109 (6): 1061–1069. P 1062
[883]. However, the highly elliptical orbit was not necessarily a disadvantage as was thought at the early planning stage “what initially appeared to be a limitation, can be turned into a unique opportunity by configuring experiments that exploit the highly elliptic orbit.”