The Indian Space Programme

by Gurbir Singh

  [884]. The 4th stage was beyond the view of ISRO's eastern-most ground station Biak in Indonesia. Had the altitude been higher than 100 km, the two large antennae (18 and 32 m) of IDSN could have been used.

  [885]. ISRO leased the two ships for three months to cover launch windows and the unpredictability of the weather given the time of year. Despite the formal separation between civilian ISRO and military DRDO, they are both government organisations and cooperation takes place when required. One of the two terminals for transmission and communication used on one of the ships was borrowed from DRDO. D. S., Madhumathi. 14 September 2013. Scientists on Ships to Track Launch of Mars Orbiter Mission. The Hindu. Retrieved from http://icast.org.in/news/2013/sep13/sep14ha.pdf.

  [886]. At about this time, the internal political disagreement had brought to a halt many services provided by the US government. NASA mitigated this impact and confirmed that its DSN would be available to assist the MOM mission as agreed. Retrieved from http://www.isro.gov.in/update/05-oct-2013/nasa-reaffirms-support-mars-orbiter-mission

  [887]. Udupa, Subramanya. 17 December 2014. Mars Orbiter Mission. Presented at the Flight Software Workshop, California Institute of Technology. P37. Retrieved from http://flightsoftware.jhuapl.edu/files/2014/Presentations/Day-2/Session-1/1-MOM-FSW2014_Key_note_address_17122014.pdf

  [888] Ramachandran, R. 21 September 2014. Mars Orbiter Mission Is on Stable Trajectory: ISRO Chief. The Hindu. Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/interview-with-isro-chief-dr-k-radhakrishnan-isro/article6431827.ece.

  [889]. Adimurthy, V. 2015. Concept Design and Planning of India’s First Interplanetary Mission. Current Science 109 (6): 1050–54. P1053

  [890]. These objectives were asserted in 2015 after MOM arrived in orbit. February 2015, Dadhwal, V, Mars Orbiter Mission in Orbit http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/stsc2015/tech-03E.pdf

  [891]. This paper authored by the team that built LAP and published a day after MOM’s arrival at Mars concluded that “Data downloading and processing are currently under progress”. Raja et al. 2015. Lyman Alpha Photometer: A Far-Ultraviolet Sensor for the Study of Hydrogen Isotope Ratio in the Martian Exosphere. Current Science 109 (6): 1114–20.

  [892]. The background methane level on Mars is 0.7 ppb (http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/mystery-of-martian-methane-deepens/). A sample of observations is listed below with the year they were made and concentrations in parts per billion. 2013–4: 7 ppb. Curiosity Rover on the Martian surface (http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/16dec_methanespike/), 2003: 250 ppb. Earth-based observatories, 2004: 35 ppb. Mars Express (ESA probe in Martian orbit), 1999: 70 ppb. Mars Global Surveyor (NASA probe in Martian orbit) http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/109/06/1087.pdf For Earth based observations of Martian Methane see Krasnopolsky, V, A et all, 2004, Detection of methane in the Martian atmosphere: evidence for life? Icarus Volume 172, Issue 2, December 2004, Pages 537-547, http://lunar.earth.northwestern.edu/courses/438/krasnopolsky2004.pdf

  [893]. The Curiosity team also reported the detection of organic molecules in the drill samples of mudstones from the floor of Gale Crater. Gronstal, Aaron L. 19 December 2014. Curiosity Detects Methane and Organic Molecules in Gale Crater. Astrobiology Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/curiosity-detects-methane-organic-molecules-gale-crater/

  [894]. However, MSM may not be able to return data about methane as a result of an inherent design flaw. A recent publication suggests “the reality is we won't be seeing any detections of methane from the Mars methane sensor on MOM”. Klotz, Irene. 7 December 2016. India’s Mars Orbiter Mission Has a Methane Problem. Seeker. Retrieved from http://www.seeker.com/india-mars-orbiter-mission-methane-detector-flaw-red-planet-2133861312.html

  [895]. The data reported in March 2015 was collected in December 2014. See https://www.facebook.com/ISRO/photos/a.1448404935382864.1073741828.1448364408720250/1607284712828218/?type=1

  [896]. In the following page, the Mars Colour Camera development team discusses the details of the camera. The following sample indicates the distance from Mars and resolution in km, 80000-4.2, 63000-3.3, 43000-2.3 and 372 -0.019. Mathew, K. et al. 2015. Methane Sensor for Mars. Current Science 109 (6): 1087–96.

  [897]. Singh, R.P. et all, Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer for Mars Orbiter Mission, Current Science Vol, 10, No. 6 25 September 2015. http://www.i-scholar.in/index.php/CURS/article/viewFile/92259/81779

  [898]. Bhardwaj, A. et al. 16 March 2016. On the Evening Time Exosphere of Mars: Result from MENCA aboard Mars Orbiter Mission. Geophysical Research Letters 43 (5): 1862–1867

  [899]. This “Announcement of Opportunity” is for data from all five of MOM’s instruments, not just the Mars Colour Camera. See http://www.isro.gov.in/pslv-c25-mars-orbiter-mission/announcement-of-opportunity-utilising-mars-orbiter-mission-data-mcc

  [900]. http://www.deccanherald.com/content/595344/isro-mars-orbiter-mission-life.html

  [901]. Zeng, Jianbing. 2009. Extended Emission Surrounding Nearby Seyfert Galaxies. Proquest Dissertations and Theses. Maryland: University of Baltimore. P16

  [902]. The instrument in the sounding rocket was designed to make the observation from the Moon. It had a very wide field of view so, although the detection was accurate, the source could not be pinpointed until a year later. Appenzeller, Immo. 2013. Introduction to Astronomical Spectroscopy. Cambridge University Press. P22

  [903]. Biswas, S. 1986. Quest for Cosmic Ray Origin: Anuradha Experiment in Spacelab 3. Proceedings of Indian National Science Academy 52A (6):1334–1348. Retrieved from http://insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/PINSA/Vol52A_1986_6_Art04.pdf

  [904]. Astrosat is the product of inputs from numerous research centres. The primary contributors have been Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai and Bangalore; Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune; Raman Research Institute, Bangalore; Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad; Canadian Space Agency, Canada, and Leicester University, the UK.

  [905]. Stars shine by converting hydrogen atoms into helium atoms through nuclear fusion in the core. Energy, including sunlight, is the product. Once all the hydrogen is used up, helium is used for a while instead, but that marks the end of the star’s life. How it ends depends on its mass. Low mass stars, like our Sun, will eventually end up first as a white and then a brown dwarf. More massive stars go through a catastrophic explosion called a supernova and end up as a neutron star, pulsar or a black hole.

  [906]. The gas consists of 25% xenon and 75% of something known as P-10. P-10 consists of Argon 90% and Methane 10%. The detectors of the Large Area X-ray Proportional Counters instrument work on a similar principle Chapter 2. Design optimisation of X-ray detectors for SSM. P37 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/3944/12/12_chapter%202.pdf

  [907]. ISRO. 2016. Astrosat Handbook. Retrieved from http://issdc.gov.in/docs/as1/Astrosat_Handbook.pdf.

  [908] Department of Space. ‘LAXPC Instrument Onboard ASTROSAT Looks at Various X-Ray Sources’, 2015. http://www.isro.gov.in/laxpc-instrument-onboard-astrosat-looks-various-x-ray-sources.

  [909]. The actual sensor is a CMOS Fillfactory/ Cypress STAR-250, 512 x 512, 25µm pixels. Kumar, A. et al. 2013. Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope (UVIT) on ASTROSAT. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1208/1208.4670.pdf.

  [910]. Kumar, A. et al. 2013. Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope (UVIT) on ASTROSAT. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1208/1208.4670.pdf.

  [911] Singh, K.P. ‘Astrosat - India’s Multi-Wavelength Astronomy Satellite’. 30 October 2015. http://www.mssl.ucl.ac.uk/www_astro/clusters2015/presentations/kpsingh_astrosat.pdf.

  [912]. Former ISRO Chairman U. R. Rao stated in a newspaper report that MOM was a "great engineering feat" that taught India how to reach the red planet and has sent down good pictures of Mars across millions of kilometres. The MOM-2 spacecraft should ideally have an orbit of 200 km x 2,000 km. It should take better experiments with sharper instruments
along and use the bigger GSLV rocket to propel it. Last time, ISRO used the light-lift PSLV.” D.S., Madhumathi. 10 August 2016. ISRO Sets the Ball Rolling for Mars Mission-2. The Hindu. http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/isro-sets-the-ball-rolling-for-mars-mission2/article8968388.ece.

  [913]. Details of the MOM-2 mission are fluid and will remain so until the proposals have come in and the payload is defined. See http://isro.gov.in/announcement-of-opportunity-ao-future-mars-orbiter-mission-mom-2

  [914]. An announcement Opportunity is a public request for proposals for scientific instruments that should form the package of science instruments for the spacecraft. http://www.isro.gov.in/announcement-of-opportunity-ao-space-based-experiments-to-study-venus.

  Chapter 16

  [915]. As a matter of national security, these figures are regarded as top secret, and although a variety of independent sources publish quantitative data, the accuracy cannot be confirmed. These figures come from the Arms Control Association (https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat)

  [916]. The report stated that “Kargil highlighted the gross inadequacies in the nation's surveillance capability, particularly through satellite imagery.” An executive summary of the report is available here: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/KargilRCA.html

  [917]. The quality of optical imaging from GEO has been undergoing incremental improvement over the years. TES was the first ISRO spacecraft to exceed 1 m resolution. Cartosat-2A achieved 0.8 m, and Cartosat-2D and Cartosat-3 will be able to achieve 0.65 m and 0.25 m resolution, respectively. Kumar, A. S. Kiran, V. K. Dadhwal and S. K. Shivakumar. March 2013. Indian Remote Sensing Satellite Series and Applications: A Saga of 25 Years. NNRMS Bulletin. P23

  [918]. Former ISRO Chairman K. Kasturirangan acknowledges the key role of A. S. Kiran Kumar, ISRO Chairman since January 2015, in developing the technology of step and stare. ISRO. 2016. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh: HarperCollins India. P493.

  [919]. See https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/t/tes

  [920]. On 2 September 2010, a Bell 430 helicopter crashed in a forest in Andhra Pradesh resulting in the death of the state chief minister and four others onboard. RISAT-2 took 41 images of the forest area in an attempt to locate the helicopter, but the wreckage was not detected. YSR’s Death. 6 February 2010. Mediavigil. Retrieved from http://mediavigil.blogspot.co.uk/2010/02/ysrs-death.html

  [921]. Satellites in SSPO can enter the Earth's shadow. The exact duration and frequency of eclipses depend on the inclination and altitude of the orbit. To enter the shadow of the Earth, Sun-synchronous orbits must have an inclination of less than 115.36° and an altitude less than 3,316 km. See http://design.ae.utexas.edu/mission_planning/mission_resources/orbital_mechanics/Sun_Synchronous_Orbits.pdf

  [922]. See https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/r/risat-1

  [923]. See http://www.aame.in/2012/07/gsat-7-insat-4f-india-military.html

  [924]. IAF’s Wait for Own Satellite Gets Longer. 5 January 2017. Deccan Herald. Retrieved from http://www.deccanherald.com/content/589900/iafs-wait-own-satellite-gets.html

  [925]. ISRO Gives Eyes in the Sky to Indian Soldiers, Watches Border Day and Night. 2 October 2016. The Indian Express. Retrieved from http://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/isro-gives-eyes-in-the-sky-to-indian-soldiers-watches-border-day-and-night/

  [926]. This information came from a formal announcement by the Defence Minister in the Parliament of India in 2011. See http://www.strategic-affairs.com/details.php? task=other_story&&id=643

  [927]. Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai. January 2014. A New Frontier, Boosting India’s Military Presence in Outer Space. ORF Occasional Paper #48. Observer Research Foundation. P14

  [928]. In the following paper, Ajey Lele, a former Group Captain with the IAF, documents to a surprising level of detail India’s current assets in its Navy, Army and Air Force. Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai and Narayan Prasad Nagendra. 2017. Space India 2.0: Commerce, Policy, Security and Governance Perspectives. Observer Research Foundation. P179. Retrieved from http://www.orfonline.org/research/space-india-2-0-commerce-policy-security-and-governance-perspectives/.

  [929]. In both cases, they were not launched in the numerical order. GSAT-7 was launched before GSAT-6. RISAT-2 was launched before RISAT-1. This is not unusual and can occur as a result of a change in priorities, unavailability of assets or rescheduling due to design or test failures.

  [930] . These numbers from the Union of Concerned Scientists should be considered as approximate. Apart from the problematic definition of a military satellite, data from satellites not categorised as military can also be used for military purposes. UCS Satellite Database: In-depth Details on the 1,459 Satellites Currently Orbiting Earth. Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved from http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-weapons/space-weapons/satellite-database#.WHowXLaLRE4

  [931]. Many of the spacecraft in orbit have military objectives, and thus details are kept secret. The US's X-37B spaceplane is one such spacecraft that has been on several extended operations in Earth orbit over several years. https://swfound.org/media/205879/swf_x-37b_otv_fact_sheet.pdf

  [932]. In this paper in, Ajey Lele, a former Group Captain with the IAF, documents to a surprising level of detail, India’s current assets in its Navy, Army and Air Force. Rajagopalan, Rajeswari Pillai and Narayan Prasad. 2017. Space India 2.0: Commerce, Policy, Security and Governance Perspectives. Observer Research Foundation. P179. Retrieved from http://www.orfonline.org/research/space-india-2-0-commerce-policy-security-and-governance-perspectives/

  [933]. Freese, Joan Johson. 2017. Outer Space Treaty and International Relations Theory: For the Benefit

  of All Mankind. In Lele, Ajey. 2017. Fifty Years of the Outer Space Treaty. Tracing the Journey. The Pentagon Press. P20

  [934]. The original 2008 draft is available here: http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/C4CD83AD4A8B4797C1257CF3003AC425/$file/1319+Russian+Federation+Draft+Updated+PPWT+.pdf

  [935]. Prevention of arms race is a weighty and complex issue, especially when a large number of different national priorities are involved. However, most forum discussions most of the time appear not to be productive. For example, here is an extract from the 2012 conference report “In accordance with the schedule of activities contained in document CD/WP.571/Rev.1, two plenary meetings on agenda item 3 entitled ‘Prevention of an arms race in outer space’ were held on 5 June and 31 July 2012. There was a lengthy discussion on this issue where delegations reaffirmed their respective positions, which are duly recorded in the plenary records of the sessions (CD/PV.1260 and CD/PV.1265).” See https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G12/626/75/PDF/G1262675.pdf?OpenElement

  [936]. Nuclear Threat Initiative. 25 March 2015. Proposed Prevention of an Arms Race in Space (PAROS) Treaty. See http://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/proposed-prevention-arms-race-space-paros-treaty/.

  [937]. Although 89 nations have signed the Seabed Treaty and 86 have ratified it, only 28 have formally gone through the process of accession. A list of signatories is available here: https://www.state.gov/t/isn/5187.htm#signatory

  [938]. Runoff, Jonathan, and Craig Eisendrath. December 2005. United States, Masters of Space? The US Space Command’s “Vision for 2020”. Global Security Institute. Retrieved from http://gsinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/s3/assets/docs/Vision2020_Analysis.pdf.

  [939]. It is unclear how much of the 2020 vision is incorporated into the current defence policy. The analysis is offered in the paper Granoff, Jonathan and Craig Eisendrath. December 2005. United States, Masters of Space? The US Space Command’s “Vision for 2020”. Global Security Institute. Retrieved from http://gsinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/s3/assets/docs/Vision2020_Analysis.pdf.

  [940]. Haney, Cecil D. 16 August 2016. Space and Missile Defence Symposium. USA Strategic Air Command. Retrieved from http://www.stratcom.mil/Media/Speeches/Article/986484/space-and-mis
sile-defense-symposium/.

  [941]. United Nations. 2016. Conference on Disarmament. Report of the Conference on Disarmament to the General Assembly of the United Nations. P11. Retrieved from http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/CD32E698D7BD5E29C125803D0035EFDB/$file/CD2080E.pdf.

  [942]. The complete Ufa 2015 declaration is available here: http://www.brics.utoronto.ca/docs/150709-ufa-declaration_en.html 32 is quoted. “Reaffirming that the exploration and use of outer space shall be for peaceful purposes, we stress that negotiations for the conclusion of an international agreement or agreements to prevent an arms race in outer space are a priority task of the Conference on Disarmament, and support the efforts to start substantive work, inter alia, based on the updated draft treaty on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space and of the threat or use of force against outer space objects submitted by China and the Russian Federation.…”

  [943]. The Russian Federation addressed to the Secretary-General of the Conference transmitting the comments by China and the Russian Federation regarding the United States of America analysis of the 2014 updated Russian and Chinese texts of the draft treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Objects (PPWT)” https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G14/050/66/PDF/G1405066.pdf