32. Soiuz mozhno bylo sokhranit’, 499.
33. Telecon with Nursultan Nazarbayev, Saturday, December 21, 1991, 12:55 EST; Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 585.
34. “V Alma-Ate rodilos’ sodruzhestvo 11 nezavisimykh gosudarstv,” Izvestiia, December 23, 1991; Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1039.
CHAPTER 18
1. Anatolii Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod. Dnevnik dvukh ėpokh, 1972–1991 gody (Moscow, 2008), 1039; Aleksandr Korzhakov, Boris El’tsin: ot rassveta do zakata (Moscow, 1997), 129–130; Conor O’Clery, Moscow, December 25, 1991: The Last Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2011), 207–208.
2. Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1039–1044; O’Clery, Moscow, 208.
3. Aleksandr Iakovlev, Sumerki (Moscow, 2005), 506–507; Georgii Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody. Reformatsiia Gorbacheva glazami ego pomoshchnika (Moscow, 1993), 307; O’Clery, Moscow, 208–219; Boris Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia, trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New York, 1994), 120–121; Korzhakov, Yeltsin, 129–130; Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1040, 1042.
4. Michael Dobbs, Down with Big Brother: The Fall of the Soviet Empire (New York, 1997), 447–448; Boris Pankin, The Last Hundred Days of the Soviet Union (London, 1996), 86; Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia, 122–123, 305–316; O’Clery, Moscow, 211–214; Korzhakov, El’tsin, 137–138.
5. Iakovlev, Sumerki, 508.
6. Ibid., 507; Memorandum of telephone conversation with President Boris Yeltsin, December 23, 1991, Bush Presidential Library, Memcons and Telcons, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/pdfs/memcons_telcons/1991-12-23—Yeltsin.pdf.
7. Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1042; O’Clery, Moscow, 208, 211–214.
8. O’Clery, Moscow, 25–26.
9. Pavel Palazhchenko, My Years with Gorbachev and Shevardnadze: The Memoir of a Soviet Interpreter (University Park, PA, 1997), 364–366; “Telecon with Mikhail Gorbachev, President of the Soviet Union,” December 25, 1991, Bush Presidential Library, Memcons and Telcons, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/pdfs/memcons_telcons/1991-12-25—Gorbachev.pdf.
10. Palazhchenko, My Years, 365.
11. O’Clery, Moscow, 201–205, 218, 226.
12. Ibid., 222, 225; Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1040–1042; “Obrashchenie M. S. Gorbacheva k narodu,” December 1991, Gorbachev Foundation Archive, fond 5, no. 10868; Andrei Grachev, “Proekt obrashcheniia Prezidenta SSSR k narodu,” December 14, 1991, Gorbachev Foundation Archive, fond 5, no. 10884.1; Soiuz mozhno bylo sokhranit’. Belaia kniga. Dokumenty i fakty o politike M. S. Gorbacheva po reformirovaniiu i sokhraneniiu mnogonatsional’nogo gosudarsta, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 2007), 504–507; “Yeltsin po-prezhnemu populiaren. Po krainei mere v Moskve,” Nezavisimaia gazeta, December 19, 1991.
13. Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1042–1043; Evgenii Shaposhnikov, Vybor. Zapiski glavnokomanduiushchego (Moscow, 1993), 136; Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs (New York, 1995), 671–672; Soiuz mozhno bylo sokhranit’, 507; Palazhchenko, My Years, 366–367; O’Clery, Moscow, 231–237.
14. O’Clery, Moscow, 236–237, 241–247; Andrei Grachev, Gorbachev. Chelovek, kotoryi khotel kak luchshe (Moscow, 2001), 418; Gorbachev, Memoirs, 671; Cherniaev, My Years, 399; Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1043.
15. Michael R. Beschloss and Strobe Talbott, At the Highest Levels: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War (Boston, 1993), 464.
16. Nick Burns to Dennis Ross and Thomas Niles, December 23, 1991; “Draft Statement on the Resignation of President Gorbachev,” Bush Presidential Library, Presidential Records, National Security Council, Nicholas R. Burns Series, Chronological Files: December 1991, no. 1. Cf. “Statement on the Resignation of Mikhail Gorbachev as President of the Soviet Union,” December 25, 1991, Bush Presidential Library, Public Papers, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/public_papers.php?id=3790&year=1991&month=12.
17. Author’s interview with Nicholas Burns, Harvard University, June 15, 2012; Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 459–460; Nick Burns to Ron McMullen, United States Military Academy, West Point, December 31, 1991, Bush Presidential Library, Presidential Records, National Security Council, Nicholas R. Burns Series, Chronological Files: December 1991, no. 1.
18. “Address on Gorbachev Resignation,” December 25, 1991, C-SPAN, http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/23549-1>; Address to the Nation on the Commonwealth of Independent States,” December 25, 1991, Bush Presidential Library, Public Papers, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/public_papers.php?id=3791&year=1991&month=12.
19. Author’s interview with Nicholas Burns, Harvard University, June 15, 2012.
20. Address to the Nation on the Commonwealth of Independent States,” December 25, 1991, Bush Presidential Library, Public Papers, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/public_papers.php?id=3791&year=1991&month=12; From Secstate to all diplomatic and consular posts, “U.S. Policy on Recognition of Former Soviet Republics. Press Guidance,” December 28, 1991, Bush Presidential Library, Presidential Records, National Security Council, John A. Gordon Series, Subject Files: Russia, December 1991.
21. “The President’s News Conference,” December 28, 1991, Bush Presidential Library, Public Papers, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/public_papers.php?id=3792&year=1991&month=12.
22. James Baker to Mikhail Gorbachev, December 29, 1991, James A. Baker Papers, box 110, folder 10.
23. O’Clery, Moscow, 261–262; Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1043–1044; Grachev, Gorbachev, 420.
24. Gorbachev, Memoirs, 672; Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia, 124.
25. Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1043–1044.
26. Ibid., 1042.
27. Gorbachev, Memoirs, 672; Cherniaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod, 1042–1043; Grachev, Gorbachev, 417–418.
28. O’Clery, Moscow, 266–267.
29. Iakovlev, Sumerki, 555.
30. Gorbachev, Memoirs, 671; Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia, 124; Korzhakov, El’tsin, 139.
31. Timothy J. Colton, Yeltsin: A Life (New York, 2008), 140–150.
EPILOGUE
1. State of the Union Address, January 28, 1991, CSPAN, http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/23999-1.
2. Address before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union, January 28, 1992, Bush Presidential Library, Public Papers, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/public_papers.php?id=3886&year=1992&month=01.
3. “Bush and Gorbachev Declare End of Cold War,” History, A&E Television Networks, History.com, www.history.com/speeches/bush-and-gorbachev-declare-end-of-cold-war#bush-and-gorbachev-declare-end-of-cold-war; Karen Holser, “The First True Post–Cold War Summit,” Baltimore Sun, July 28, 1991; “Bush Told Gorbachev to Ignore ‘Crowing’ over Cold War Victory,” Seattle Times, October 26, 1992.
4. John R. Young, “In State of Union, President Evokes Spirit of Gulf War,” Washington Post, January 29, 1991.
5. George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York, 1998), 559–561; Stephen Kotkin, Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970–2000 (Oxford, 2001), 185; Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How they Won the Cold War (New York, 1996), 552.
6. Jack Matlock, Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador’s Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York, 1995), 667–672; “The End of the Cold War, the Collapse of Communism, and the Fall of the Soviet Union,” part 4 of “The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the End of the Cold War: A Diplomat Looks Back,” interview of Jack Matlock by Harry Kreisler, “Conversations with History” series, Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley, February 13, 1997, http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/conversations/Matlock/matlock-con4.html.
7. George F. Kennan, “Witness to the Fall,” New York Review of Books, November 1995, 7–10, here 7.
8. Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs (New York, 1995), 1046.
9. Mark Beissinger, “The Persistent Ambiguity of Empire,” Post-Soviet Affairs no. 11 (1995); Mark R. Beissinger, “Rethinking Empire in the Wake of Soviet Collapse,” in Ethnic Politics an
d Post-Communism: Theories and Practice, ed. Zoltan Barany and Robert Moser (Ithaca, NY, 2005), 14–44; S. Becker, “Russia and the Concept of Empire,” Ab Imperio, 2000, nos. 3–4: 329–342; Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939 (Ithaca, NY, 2001); Terry Martin, “The Soviet Union as Empire: Salvaging a Dubious Theoretical Category,” Ab Imperio, 2002, no. 2: 91–105; Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History: Power and Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ, 2010), chap. 14; Dominic Lieven, Empire: The Russian Empire and Its Rivals (New Haven, CT, 2002), chap. 9; S. M. Plokhy, Yalta: The Price of Peace (New York, 2010), chap. 14.
10. Gorbachev, Memoirs, 651–657; Evgenii Shaposhnikov, Vybor. Zapiski glavnokomanduiushchego (Moscow, 1993), 102.
11. Petr Aven and Al’fred Kokh, “El’tsin sluzhil nam!,” interview with Gennadii Burbulis, Forbes (Russian edition), July 22, 2010, www.forbes.ru/node/53407/print.
12. Boris Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia, trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New York, 1994), 116; Gorbachev, Memoirs, 658; interview with Valentin Varennikov in Rozpad Radians’koho Soiuzu. Usna istoriia nezalezhnoï Ukraïny 1988–91, tape 2, http://oralhistory.org.ua/interview-ua/401/.
13. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History,” National Interest, Summer 1989; Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York, 1992).
14. George Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (New York, 2008), 914; C. J. Chivers, “Russia Will Pursue Democracy, but in Its Own Way, Putin Says,” New York Times, April 26, 2005.
15. Edward Lucas, The New Cold War: Putin’s Russia and the Threat to the West (New York, 2009).
16. Craig Unger, American Armageddon: How the Delusions of Neoconservatives and the Christian Right Triggered the Descent of America—and Still Imperil Our Future (New York, 2007), 115–117; “Iraq War: 190,000 Lives, $2.2 Trillion,” press release, Costs of War Project, Brown University, March 14, 2013, http://news.brown.edu/pressreleases/2013/03/warcosts.
17. George W. Bush, “Commencement Address at the United States Military Academy at West Point, West Point, New York,” June 1, 2002, http://www.presidentialrhetoric.com/speeches/06.01.02.html; George W. Bush, “Freedom in Iraq and the Middle East: Address at the 20th Anniversary of the National Endowment for Democracy, Washington, D.C.,” November 6, 2003, http://www.presidentialrhetoric.com/speeches/11.06.03.html.
Index
ABC News, 372, 373
Abkhazia, 176, 177, 360, 406
Able Archer NATO exercises, 7
Accidents, nuclear. See Chernobyl nuclear catastrophe
Adamishin, Anatolii, 195
Afanasenko, Peter, 128
Afanasiev, Yurii, 177–178, 300
Afghanistan, 6, 202–203, 204, 404, 407
Africa, 22
Agriculture, 300–301
Aid. See Economic aid; Humanitarian aid, U.S.; Technology
Airlines
hijacking, 245
KAL, Flight 007, 6
Akayev, Askar, 224, 345–346
See also Kyrgyzstan
Akhromeev, Sergei, 148–149
Alekseichik, Yakov, 310
Alexander II (Tsar), 395
Almaty (Alma-Ata), xix
Almaty summit
Belarus and, 359–360, 362–363, 364
breakaway regions and, 360, 362
Central Asian Republics and, 362–363, 364
Cherniaev on, 364–365
focus points at, 362–363, 364
Gorbachev and, 344, 356–357
Kazakhstan and, 363, 364
nuclear arsenals and, 363, 364, 371
participants, 356–357, 361–362
Russia and, 83, 362–363, 364
Shaposhnikov on, 361–362
Ukraine and, 358–359, 362–364
See also Commonwealth of Independent States
Anastasiia (Gorbachev’s granddaughter), 133
Andropov, Yurii, 9, 12, 54, 82, 86–87, 92
“Uzbek Case” and, 353–354
Anna Karenina (Tolstoy), 41
Annexation, 192–193
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, 51
Anti-Semitism, 68
Antisovetchik (dissidents), 111
“An Appeal to the Peoples of Russia and to the Congress of People’s Deputies of the Russian Federation” (Yeltsin, B.), 229–230
Arafat, Yasser, 204
Archives, presidential, 369
Argumenty i fakty (Arguments and Facts), 138, 187
Armenia, 192
CIS and, 360
electoral democracy in, xviii
Nagornyi Karabakh and, 33–34, 213, 357, 360, 361, 362
sovereignty and, 173, 265
Ter-Petrosian and, 186–187, 361
U.S. and, 382
Asia. See Central Asia; Central Asian republics; specific countries
Atomic bombs, 5
Australia, 393
Austria, 280
Azerbaijan
Azeris and ethnic clashes in, 33–34, 213, 357, 361
CIS and, 360
Mutalibov and, 224, 357, 361
Nagornyi Karabakh in, 33–34, 213, 357, 360, 361, 362
sovereignty and, 173
U.S. and, 382
Azeris. See Azerbaijan
Babich, Mikhail, 305–306
Babii Yar (film), 66
Babyn Yar massacres, 66–67, 266, 285
Bagrov, Nikolai, 281
Bakatin, Vadim, 138, 202
Baker, James, 21, 38, 45, 75–76, 87, 215, 236, 384, 405
Cherniaev on, 270
CIS and, 322, 327–333, 335, 336–343, 345–349, 351, 359, 364
coup d’état of August 1991
and, 116, 125, 200
critics of, 263
Gorbachev’s resignation and, 379, 382–383
with James A. Baker Papers, xxi
in Kazakhstan, 346–349, 351
in Kyrgyzstan, 345–346
with Marshall Plan for Soviet Union, 205–206, 329–331, 341
at Middle East Peace Conference, 233, 239
new union treaty and, 219
nuclear briefcases and, 340
on reform, 346
with support for center, 211
in Ukraine, 359
Ukrainian sovereignty and, 262, 263, 264, 267, 270
U.S. aid and, 331–332
US-Soviet relations and, 78, 199–200, 201, 202–206, 208, 232, 237, 238, 337–338, 404, 407
Baliuk, Nadezhda, 316
Baliuk, Sergei, 316
Baltic republics
demonstrations in, 34, 39
electoral democracy in, xviii
local nationalism in, 34
in post-Soviet space, 407
sovereignty and, 30, 34–35, 38, 39, 45–46, 49–50, 174, 187, 193–198
“System Change” in, 50
U.S. interest in, 191, 192–198
See also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania
Banks, 226, 270–271, 284
Barannikov, Viktor, 245–246, 339
Basaev, Shamil, 245
Basques, 240
Bazhov, Pavel, 227–228
Begala, Paul, 260
Belarus (Belorussia), 112, 182, 193
Almaty summit and, 359–360, 362–363, 364
Belavezha Agreement and, 298, 299–301, 302–310, 312–316, 324
Chernobyl nuclear catastrophe and, 300–301
dairy farming in, 300
Kebich and, 302–303, 305, 309, 310, 311, 312
new union treaty and, 264
nuclear disarmament and, 363, 371
as nuclear republic, xix
Russia and, 297, 299, 302, 306–307
sovereignty and, 173, 177
UN and, 393
U.S. and, 382
Belavezha Agreement, xx–xxi, 397, 400
approval rating, 359
articles, 308–309
Belarus, 298, 299–301, 302–310, 312–316, 324
CIS and, xxi, 307–309, 319–324, 327–333, 335–343
drafting of, 306–309
Gorbachev and, 298–299, 303, 313–315, 322–323, 325–327, 333–336, 342–343
Nazarbayev and, 320, 321, 348
opposition to, 319–322, 324–326
ratification of, 326, 327
reaction to, 320–322, 338, 348
Russia and, 297–299, 302–304, 305–310, 313–314, 319, 323–326, 338–341
Ukraine, 298, 299–301, 303–310, 312–316, 320, 324
See also Commonwealth of Independent States; Soviet Union, collapse of
Belavezha Forest, xx–xxi, 301–302, 316
Belorussia. See Belarus
Beria, Lavrentii, 82
Berlin Wall, fall of, 4, 78, 232, 391
Beschloss, Michael R., 333–335, 336
Bessmertnykh, Aleksandr, 21, 48–49, 138
Black market, 370
Boldin, Valerii, coup d’état of August 1991 and, 81, 83–84, 85, 86, 89–90
Bolsheviks, 186
execution of Nicholas II, 28
French Revolution and influence on, 395
ideology, 228, 398
legacy, xvii
revolution, 11, 98, 243, 329, 365, 394
Ukrainian sovereignty crushed by, 178
Yeltsin and influence of, 42
Bombs
atomic, 5
hydrogen, 5, 13
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 329
Bonner, Elena, 103–104, 177–178
Borders
sovereignty and disputes over, 172, 176–177, 181–182, 192–194, 200–201, 265, 308
treaties, 176
violence on, 50–51, 194
Boris (Yeltsin’s grandson), 100
Brezhnev, Leonid, 301, 354, 401
Carter and, 6
death of, 6, 9, 82, 92
legacy, 12, 54, 117, 349
Nixon and, 3, 6, 51, 53
Bribes, 353–354
Briefcases, nuclear, 81, 340, 368, 371, 376, 377
Brown, Hank, 261
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 289
Building complex, transfer of, 369
Bukovyna, 283
Burbulis, Gennadii, 31, 141–142, 213–214, 297
Belavezha Agreement and, 298, 299, 304, 306, 309–310
center-republic relations and, 249, 397–398
The Last Empire Page 57