The Reformer
Page 47
54.R. B. McKean, St. Petersburg between the Revolutions (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 497–98.
55.Shulgin, Dni * 1920, 174–75.
56.Nikolaev, Gosudarstvennaia duma v Fevral’skoi revoliutsii, 91–92, 226.
57.Maklakoff, “Le Dénouement,” Revue de Paris 5 (1924), 518. See also Rech [Speech], May 5, 1917, 304 (Maklakov makes the same point in his speech of May 4, 1917, discussed below); Hasegawa, The February Revolution, 561 (agreeing on the moral necessity for the Duma of favoring the insurgents over the old regime).
58.Hasegawa, The February Revolution, 557–58.
59.Orlando Figes and Boris Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Russian Revolution: The Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999), 72. See also Boris Kolonitskii, “Tragicheskaia erotika”: obrazy imperatorskoi semi v gody Pervoi mirovoi voiny [“Tragic Erotica”: images of the imperial family in the years of the First World War] (Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2010).
60.Ibid., 71–103. See also Leonid Heretz, Russia on the Eve of Modernity: Popular Religion and Traditional Culture under the Last Tsars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 191 (arguing that the war “involved the torrential infusion of ideas and information from the modern Russian/European civilization into the consciousness of the peasantry, which re- [or mis-]interpreted this flow of facts according the categories of the traditional culture and thereby produced a confused and highly volatile mental condition”).
61.Kolonitskii, “Tragicheskaia erotika,” 26.
62.Maklakoff, “Le Dénouement,” 531.
63.Ibid., 534.
64.Ibid., 532.
65.Michael T. Florinsky, The End of the Russian Empire (New York: Collier Books, 1961), 191.
66.On both the development of civil society and the government’s clumsy but assiduous efforts to stifle it, see Wayne Dowler, Russia in 1913 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2012).
67.Rech, May 5, 1917, 3–4.
68.Ibid.
CHAPTER 18: IN THE MAELSTROM: THE LIBERALS IN OFFICE
1.W. E. Mosse, “The Russian Provisional Government, 1917,” Soviet Studies 15, no. 4 (April 1964), 408–19. See also Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1990), 326; and Melissa Kirschke Stockdale, Paul Miliukov and the Quest for a Liberal Russia, 1880–1918 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1996), 249–50.
2.William G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution: The Constitutional Democratic Party, 1917–1921 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), 148–49.
3.John L. Keep, The Russian Revolution: A Study in Mass Mobilization (New York: Norton, 1976), 70–71.
4.Ibid., 172–85.
5.Joshua A. Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse: The Great War and the Destruction of the Russian Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014); Joshua A. Sanborn, “Unsettling the Empire: Violent Migrations and Social Disaster in Russia in World War I,” Journal of Modern History 77, no. 2 (June 2005), 290–324.
6.Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 321–22.
7.Kermit E. McKenzie, “Zemstvo Organization and Role within the Administrative Structure,” in The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government, eds. Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 31, 57–61, 65.
8.Boris I. Kolonitskii, “Antibourgeois Propaganda and Anti-‘Burzhui’ Consciousness in 1917,” Russian Review 53, no. 2 (April 1994), 183–96.
9.See N. G. Dumova, Kadetskaia partiia v period pervoi mirovoi voiny i Fevralskoi revolutsii [The Kadet party in the period of the First World War and the February Revolution] (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), 101–2; D. A. Chugaev, ed., Revoliutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii v iiule 1917 g. [The Revolutionary movement in Russia in July 1917] (Moscow: Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1959), 583; Basil Maklakov, “On the Fall of Tsardom,” Slavonic and East European Review 18, no. 52 (July 1939), 77; F. A. Gaida, Liberalnaia oppozitsiia na putiakh k vlasti (1914–vesna 1917 g.) [The liberal opposition on the path to power (1914–Spring 1917)] (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2003), 339–40; Protokoly, 3:355–56; Maklakov, La Chute, 8–9, 16–18. Compare Leonard Schapiro, The Russian Revolutions of 1917: The Origins of Modern Communism (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 61–62 (commenting on the anomaly of the inquiry commission).
10.Rex A. Wade, The Russian Search for Peace: February–October 1917 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969), 64–69.
11.Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse, 209–10, 218.
12.William C. Fuller, Jr., The Foe Within: Fantasies of Treason and the End of Imperial Russia (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2006), 240–41. For an overview of the Kerensky-Kornilov affair, see James D. White, “The Kornilov Affair: A Study in Counter-Revolution,” Soviet Studies 20, no. 2 (1968), 187–205.
13.Rech, June 4, 1917, 2. See also Dumova, Kadetskaia partiia, 146.
14.Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse, 201, 236.
15.Alexander Ivanovich Verkhovskii, Rossiia na Golgof; iz pokhodnago dnevnika [Russia at Golgotha: from a diary on the march] 1914–1918 gg. (Petrograd: “Delo Naroda,” 1918), 113–39.
16.V. D. Nabokov, V. D. Nabokov and the Russian Provisional Government, 1917, eds. Virgil D. Medlin and Steven L. Parsons (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), 152–55.
17.Semion Lyandres, The Fall of Tsarism: Untold Stories of the February 1917 Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 251, 263. See also S. P. Melgunov, Na putiakh dvortsovomu perevorotu (zagovory pered revoliutsieĭ 1917 goda) [On the way to a palace coup (plots before the Revolution of 1917)] (Paris: Librairie “La Source,” 1931), 153.
18.Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse, 173, 222, 257.
19.Verkhovskii, Rossiia na Golgof, 123–24.
20.Nabokov, V. D. Nabokov and the Russian Provisional Government, 1917, 153.
21.Ibid., 154.
22.Ibid., 152.
23.Ibid., 96.
24.https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/верховский, александр иванович.
25.For a general assessment of Kornilov’s military prowess, see D. N. Collins, “Correspondence,” Soviet Studies 4, no. 4 (April 1970), 528–32.
26.Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 442–46; Boris Savinkov, K delu Kornilova [The Kornilov Affair] (Paris: 1918), 6–23.
27.Richard Abraham, Alexander Kerensky: The First Love of the Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 261; Pavel D. Dolgorukov, Velikaia razrukha: Vospominaniia osnovatelia partii kadetov, 1916–1926 [Great devastation: Memoirs of founder of the party of Constitutional Democrats, 1916–1926] (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2007) 44–45.
28.Rech, August 16, 1917, 2.
29.Savinkov, K delu Kornilova, 17; Paul N. Miliukov, The Russian Revolution (Gulf Breeze, FL: Academic International Press, 1978–1987), 2:114–15.
30.Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 440–41, 446–48; A. Kerenskii, Delo Kornilova [The Kornilov affair] (Ekaterinoslav, 1918), 20–21.
31.Maklakov, La Chute, 85–86.
32.Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 3:347–48 (Maklakov to Bakhmetev, September 16, 1927).
33.Anton Ivanovich Denikin, Ocherki russkoi smuty [Notes of the Russian chaos] (Moscow, 1991; reprint of the same, published in Paris in 1922), 2:31.
34.Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence 3:35 (Maklakov to Bakhmetev, September 16, 1927).
35.The above account, including the translation of the Hughes machine transcript, is drawn from Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 451–57.
36.Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 3:348–49 (Maklakov to Bakhmetev, September 16, 1927).
37.Winston Churchill, Great Contemporaries (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1937), 126.
38.The full text of the transcript appears at D. A. Chugaev, ed., Revoliutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii v avguste 1917 g. [The Revolutionary movement in Russia in August 1917] (Moscow: Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1959), 448–52.
39.See Dumova, Kadetskaia partiia, 198, for a version of this conversation edited to erase the differe
nce between a coup against Kerensky and an effort to have the Provisional Government take a stronger line against the prevailing centrifugal tendencies.
40.Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 458–63.
41.See, e.g., V. A. Maklakov, Vlast i obshchestvennost na zakate staroi Rossii (Vospominaniia sovremenika) [State and society in the twilight of old Russia (Recollections of a contemporary)] (Paris: Izdanie zhurnala “Illustrirovanaia Rossiia,” 1936), 244–46, 414–16, 457–60, 472–73, 602, 607, 609–10.
CHAPTER 19: EXILE
1.Oleg Budnitskii, “Posly nesushchestvuiushchei strany” [Ambassadors of a nonexistent country], introduction to Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:16.
2.Ibid., 2:547 (letter of April 24, 1923).
3.Georgii Adamovich, Vasilii Alekseevich Maklakov: Politik, Iurist, Chelovek [Vasily Alekseevich Maklakov: Politician, jurist, human being] (Paris, 1959), 207.
4.Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:197 (Maklakov to Bakhmetev, April 10, 1920).
5.Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:366–67 (Maklakov to Bakhmetev, April 15, 1921). Later, in an echo of his 1909 discussion of the way history may turn an illegal coup d’état into a lawful regime, he observed that the émigrés had had to give up the practice of calling the Soviets usurpers; see V. Maklakov, “Zakonnost v Russkoi zhizni” [The rule of law in Russian life], Vestnik Evropy, May 1909. Tyrkova-Williams Diary and Letters, 906 (Maklakov to Tyrkova-Williams, April 6, 1945).
6.Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 2:90 (Maklakov to Bakhmetev, November 8, 1921).
7.Leon Aron, Roads to the Temple: Truth, Memory, and Ideals in the Makings of the Russian Revolution, 1987–1991 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 11–35.
8.Tyrkova-Williams replies to him (quite vociferously) in her letter of November 14, 1944, Tyrkova-Williams Diary and Letters, 406; the Maklakov writing to which she responds, evidently undated, appears at ibid., 767n1198.
9.Tyrkova-Williams Diary and Letters, 906 (Maklakov to Tyrkova-Williams, April 6, 1945). See also Hoover 16-3 (“Les paragraphes de A.K.,” noting that World War II forced Stalin to allow Russians to return to their Russian roots).
10.V. A. Maklakov, “Sovetskaia vlast i emigratsiia,” [Soviet power and the emigration], Russkie Novosti, May 25, 1945, 2, in Hoover 20-3.
11.Hoover 10-24 (June 25, 1934).
12.See Hoover 19-31 (typed copy of text of a June 14, 1946, Soviet decree on re-admitting refugees to Soviet citizenship, published in the June 22, 1946, issue of the pro-Soviet Russkie Novosti). See also Robert Harold Johnston, New Mecca, New Babylon: Paris and the Russian Exiles, 1920–1945 (Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1988), 172–74.
13.Robert H. Johnston, “The Great Patriotic War and the Russian Exiles in France,” Russian Review 35, no. 3 (July 1976), 303, 309–12.
14.Ibid., 314–15.
15.Maklakov’s account is in a seven-page single-spaced typewritten memo in Hoover 19-31.
16.Johnston, “The Great Patriotic War,” 314.
17.Richard Abraham, Alexander Kerensky: The First Love of the Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 274.
18.Brian Boyd, Vladimir Nabokov: The American Years (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 84–85.
19.Evgenii Efimovskii, “Odin iz Mogikan: Pamiati V. A. Maklakova” [One of the Mohicans: Memories of V. A. Maklakov], Vozrozhdenie 68 (1957), 123–24.
20.Tyrkova-Williams Diary and Letters, 445 and 778 n.1266 (letter of Tyrkova-Williams to Bakhmetev, June 1, 1951).
21.Johnston, “The Great Patriotic War,” 318, 320.
22.Johnston, New Mecca, 33–34.
23.John M. Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism and Versailles Peace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966), 65.
24.With the agreement of the United States State Department, the work of the conference, including its experts, was financed out of credits of the Provisional Government in the West. Budnitskii, Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:59.
25.Ibid., 76; and see ibid., 65–81, for the formation of the group. See also Budnitskii, Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:57–59, 490n3.
26.Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, 73.
27.Constantine Nabokoff, The Ordeal of a Diplomat (London: Duckworth and Co., 1921), 188.
28.Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, 81.
29.Ibid., 78–79.
30.Adamovich, Vasilii Alekseevich Maklakov, 209–10. Although there is ample documentation of Maklakov’s speech to the foreign ministers of the Big Five (the Big Four plus Japan) or their delegates, see Svetlana Suveica, “‘Russkoe Delo’ and the ‘Bessarabian Cause’: The Russian Political Émigrés and the Bessarabians in Paris (1919–1920),” Institute for East and Southeast European Studies (IOS), no. 64, February 2014, http://www.dokumente.ios-regensburg.de/publikationen/mitteilungen/mitt_64.pdf; The Roumanian Occupation in Bessarabia: Documents, https://archive.org/stream/roumanianoccupat00paririch#page/124/mode/2up/search/Appendix+No.+37, the discussion with the Big Four, assuming Adamovich’s sources are correct that it occurred at all, is alluded to in formal records (though with a questionable date) but appears to have generated no transcript. See The Case for Bessarabia: A Collection of Documents on the Rumanian Occupation at 20, 26, https://archive.org/stream/caseforbessarabi00russ#page/n3/mode/2up.
31.Budnitskii, Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:63.
32.Jonathan D. Smele, Civil War in Siberia: The Anti-Bolshevik Government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 183–84.
33.Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, 296–303.
34.Oleg Budnitskii, Russian Jews between the Reds and the Whites, 1917–1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 269.
35.Ibid., 165–66.
36.Ibid., 446n142.
37.Ibid., 169–71.
38.Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:256–58 (Maklakov to Bakhmetev, October 21, 1920); Oleg Budnitskii, “The Russian Ambassador in Paris on the Whites and the Jews,” Jews in Eastern Europe no. 3(28) (1995), 62–64 (which contains translations into English of portions of the October 21, 1920, letter); Budnitskii, Russian Jews, 212–15.
39.Ibid., 311.
40.Budnitskii, Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:87; see also Hoover 7-12 (letter to Maklakov from the French foreign ministry dated May 5, 1939, using his and the office’s exact titles); Johnston, New Mecca, 66–69.
41.Adamovich, Vasilii Alekseevich Maklakov, 213–14.
42.Roman Petroff, Novembre blanc (St. Malo: Editions L’Ancre de Marine, 2012), 419–20.
43.Adamovich, Vasilii Alekseevich Maklakov, 214–15.
44.Marc Raeff, Russia Abroad: A Cultural History of the Russian Emigration, 1919–1939 (Oxford University Press, 1990), 35–36; Vaclav Lednitskii, “Vokrug V. A. Maklakova (lichnye vospominaniia)” [Around V. A. Maklakov (personal reminiscences)], Novyi Zhurnal, no. 56 (March 1959), 239–43.
45.Budnitskii, Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:88–89; Johnston, New Mecca, 162; Adamovich, Vasilii Alekseevich Maklakov, 222.
46.Budnitskii, Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:90.
47.Johnston, New Mecca, 178; Hoover 14-11 (March 1, 1945 letter from Maklakov to Alexandra Tolstoy reporting on resumption of efforts); R. L. Uritskaia, Oni liubili svoiu stranu: Sudba russkoi emigratsii vo Frantsii s 1933 po 1948 g. [They loved their country: Destiny of Russian emigration in France from 1933 to 1948] (St. Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 2010), 205–7.
48.Budnitskii, Bakhmetev-Maklakov Correspondence, 1:91–92; Tyrkova-Williams Diary and Letters, 1006–1007 (Maklakov to Tyrkova-Williams, August 21, 1955); Lednitskii, “Vokrug V. A. Maklakova,” 247–48.
49.Adamovich, Vasilii Alekseevich Maklakov, 216, 220; http://goslitmuz.ru/media/videos/.
50.Berberova, Liudi i lozhi, 301; Johnston, New Mecca, 86.
51.Lednitskii, “Vokrug V. A. Maklakova,” 246–50; Adamovich, Vasilii Alekseevich Maklakov, 232.
52.Ibid., 234.
53.Ibid., 237.
CHAPTER 20: CODA: THE RULE OF LAW AS THE THIN END OF THE WEDGE
1.The Federalist, No. 51.
2.See 28 U.S.C. § 453 (part of the oath required for judges appointed under Article III of the U.S. Constitution).
3.See Joseph Raz, The Authority of Law, 2nd ed. (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 211 (arguing that use of very broad concepts turns “rule of law” into a proxy for ideal government).
4.C. L. Stevenson, Ethics and Language (New York: AMS Press, 1979 [reprint]).
5.Not for all audiences. For some the idea sounds narrow, or rigid, or formulaic, perhaps because of confusion as to what it means.
6.See, e.g., The World Justice Project, Rule of Law Index (Washington, DC: World Justice Project, 2011), 12 and n8 (scoring “the elimination of discrimination,” and specifically its elimination “in respect of employment and occupation,” as aspects of the rule of law).
7.For a description of that regime, see Marc Szeftel, “The Form of Government of the Russian Empire Prior to the Constitutional Reforms of 1905–06,” in Essays in Russian and Soviet History in Honor of Geroid Tanquary Robinson, ed. John Shelton Curtiss (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 105–19.
8.See, e.g., Randall Peerenboom, China’s Long March toward Rule of Law (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 397–99. For the concept of “policy drift,” see Matthew D. McCubbins, Roger G. Noll, and Barry R. Weingast, “Structure and Process, Politics and Policy: Administrative Arrangements and the Political Control of Agencies,” Virginia Law Review 75 (1989), 431, 439, 444; McCubbins, Noll, and Weingast, “Administrative Procedures as Instruments of Political Control,” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 3 (1987), 243, 255, 262.
9.See, e.g., Francis Spufford, Red Plenty (Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2010) (an account in fictionalized form of the ubiquitous back-scratching, deal-making, and principal-agent abuses that developed under the Soviet regime). Of course in a regime as rigid as Soviet economic planning, elimination of these devices would likely make the system still less effective at meeting consumer desires.
10.Martin Shapiro, “Courts in Authoritarian Regimes,” in Tom Ginsburg and Tamir Moustafa, Rule by Law: The Politics of Courts in Authoritarian Regimes (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 326, 334–35, discusses the problem in relation to legitimacy.