counting by, 131
gesturing by, 112–114
goal-directed behavior, 20
intentions of the actions of others, understanding, 21
recognition by, 34
thinking by, 19–20
training joint action, 27
vocabulary acquisition and gestures, 131
word acquisition, 36
cholera (1854), map of, 200–201
circles, 131, 134, 167–169, 209, 227
cities, layouts of, 72–73
cocktail napkins, 262
cognitive behavior therapy, 273
cognitive collage, 83
cognitive design principles, 193–194, 199, 201
Cognitive Laws, 289
First, 15–16, 39, 51, 150, 157, 169, 194, 240, 274
Second, 18
Third, 42
Fourth, 13, 36, 55, 64
Fifth, 57, 73, 81
Corollary of Fifth, 60
Sixth, 72, 142, 165
Seventh, 78, 244
Eighth, 190
Ninth, 280
cognitive load, 127, 146
cognitive maps, 72, 82–83
cognitive reference points, 81
coherence, check for, 261
collaboration, 29, 136–137, 284
color, 44
comics, 240–255
advantages of, 241–243
beginning of, 243
connections in, 245
contrasting word and picture, 249–250
disconnection in, 245–246
effectiveness, 241
end of, 246
figures of depiction, 250–253, 251 (fig.)–253 (fig.)
meaning created by, 247–255
middle of, 243–246
motion expressed in, 246
multiple meanings expressed by, 252–255
multiple views in, 247–249, 248 (fig.)
rule breaking by, 242
scrutiny encouraged and rewarded by, 242–243
segmentation, 243–245
splash pages, 243
visual anaphors to establish continuity, 245
written language in, 249
common fate, 74–75
communication, redundancy in, 47–48
competence judgments, 46
completeness, check for, 261
complex systems, 132
conceptual maps, 71–72, 201
conducting, gestures and, 138–139
confirmation bias, 56–57, 273
congruent mapping, 94, 129, 134–135, 208
construction, mental, 95–97, 95 (fig.)
constructive perception, 266
containers, 230
context, map use in, 199
continuity, 245–246
continuous data, 230–231
continuous gestures, 236
conversation, 29–30, 136, 240
cooperation, 27, 41, 282–283
coordination with others, 26–30
correspondence, principle of, 193–194, 201, 208, 210, 235
counting
by children, 131
exact number system (ENS), 177
gestures and, 124, 134
notation systems for, 177
taboos against, 205
tallies, 203–205, 204 (fig.), 208
as tool of thought, 206
creating, drawing and, 262–267
creative thinking, 263
creativity, 267–271
cultural differences in math diagrams, 207–208
cycle/cyclicity, 134, 167
da Vinci, Leonardo, 140, 257–259, 261, 270
dance, 138, 211–212
data stories, 240
deictic center, 143–144, 164, 170
deictic gestures, 117
depictions
of events, people, places, and things, 214–216
figures of, 250–253, 251 (fig.)–253 (fig.)
descriptions, 72, 126, 127–128, 143, 144–145, 146, 148, 149–150, 152, 227, 233–234, 239
design
empathetic, 269
gestures and, 137–138
reliance on drawing, 262–267
spatial language of the designed world, 286–288
designed world as diagrams, 287–288
designing the world, 277–280, 277 (fig.)–280 (fig.)
diagrams
abstraction, 288
advantage over text, 238
animations compared to static graphics, 235–236
arrows in, 232–235, 234 (fig.)
benefits, 261
comics as, 241
contrasting to a natural scene, 222
creating effective, 238–239
discourse forms, 239–240
effectiveness of, 237
Euler, 209, 209 (fig.)
Feynman, 210–211, 210 (fig.)
in L’Encyclopédie, 221, 221 (fig.)
math, 207–208
memorability, 236–237
reasoning from, 209–211, 209 (fig.)–210 (fig.)
semantics of, 220
tree, 222
world as diagrammed, 287–288
Diderot, Denis, 220–222, 221 (fig.), 226
differences, sensitivity to, 176
dimensional thinking, 224
dimensions, 51–54, 58
of dots, lines, and enclosures, 226
neutral, 223, 225
value-laden, 223, 225
direct mapping, 148, 208, 238, 261
direction judgments, 78
directionality, 170–171
directions
arrows and, 232
egocentric perspective and, 143–144
frame of reference and, 146–147
route, 144–145, 146, 182
sketch maps, 145
discourse, forms of, 239–240
discrete data, 230–231
discrete gestures, 236
distance
quality or value as symbolic, 173
symbolic, 173, 175
distance judgments
distortion related to perspective, 81–82
reference points as proxy for, 80–81
spatial categories as proxies for, 78–79
distant perspective, 181
distortion
of approximate number system, 176
on maps, 199, 201
in time, 166–167
divergent thinking, 266, 269
dots, 157–158, 163
drawing
artists, 274–275
to create, 262–267
as empirical method, 258–259
in the mind, 94–97
new interpretations, discovering, 264–267, 265 (fig.)
to see and discover, 257–259
to understand and learn, 259–261
unintended discoveries, 264
See also sketches
dynamics, 132–133
edges, 157
ego, moving, 164–165
egocentric body-centered framework, 66–67, 149, 150–151
egocentric perspective, 65–66, 142–146, 153, 183
egocentric reference frame, 151
Einstein, Albert, 140, 163
embedded figures, 266
embedded perspectives, 274
emblems, 116
embodiment, 23
emojis, 242
emotional mirroring, 112
emotions
appraisal of, 44
cooperation and, 41
eyes and, 45–46
faces and, 41–45
gestures and, 121–122
judgments of, 43
positive and negative, 42
valence, 42, 47
empathetic design, 269
empathetic perspective, 269–270
empathy, 42
emotional mirroring, 112
lack of, 184
perspective taking, 273
empirical research, drawing as form of, 258–259
&nbs
p; empirical semantics, 227
enclosures, 226–227
entorhinal cortex, 68–71, 147, 156
entrainment, 29–30, 111, 137
environment
gestures and descriptions of, 126
spatial perspective in new, 64
epidemiology, 201
error, 17, 29, 39, 47, 75–80, 83, 86, 89, 91, 94, 97, 133, 148, 174–175, 181, 192, 208
estimates, 174–175, 182, 208
Euler diagram, 209, 209 (fig.)
events
actions distinguished from, 216
background, 247
cyclical, 167–169
depictions of, 214–216
distortions in time, 166–167
ordering in time, 170–172
segmentation, 243
evolution, 70, 110–111
exact number system (ENS), 174, 177–179, 208
expertise, 263, 265–266
explanations, 35, 102, 103, 123, 127, 133, 144, 168, 182, 190, 193, 201, 216–221, 235, 239
knowledge and understanding increased by creating, 260
verbal, 259–261
visual, 259–261, 260 (fig.)–261 (fig.)
exploration, 274–275
eyes, 20, 29, 39, 40, 45–46, 48–49, 59, 62–63, 90, 118, 122, 180, 222, 262, 284
face blindness, 41
face-to-face communication, 242–243
faces
emotion and, 41–45
eyes, 45–46
memory for, 41
recognizing, 40–41
traits and, 46–47
far, perspective and, 181
feet, enhancements of, 281
Feynman, Richard, 58, 253–254
Feynman diagram, 210–211, 210 (fig.)
figures of depiction, 250–253, 251 (fig.)–253 (fig.)
First General Fact Worth Remembering, 14
fixation, release from, 266, 268
forecasters, 271–273
forms, 156–157
in designed world, 288
ideas and, 284–286
qualities of, 156
in space, 285–286
frame of reference, 74, 143, 146–147
language differences and, 150–151
mixed when talking, 149
frames, 247
Freud, Sigmund, 160–161
future, planning for, 71, 190–191
games, cooperation and, 282–283
Gasoline Alley (comic strip), 247, 248 (fig.)
gender differences, 101, 103
General Cognitive Design Principles, 193–194, 199
geography, 72–83
geometric analogies, 95–97, 95 (fig.)
geometry, 156–157, 209
gestures, 48, 109–140
abstraction, 115, 130, 284–285, 288
as actions in space, 115–116, 130
as actions on invisible objects (ideas), 284
by babies, 112–114
beats, 117, 133
benefits, 148
cardinality understanding helped by, 131
circular, 106, 131, 134, 168
continuous, 236
deictic, 117–118
directionality, in describing events, 171
discrete, 236
emblems, 116
entrainment, 111, 137
environmental descriptions, 126
explicit nature of, 137
graphics compared to, 114–115
how representational gestures work, 130
iconic, 118
to locate things when face-to-face, 148
metaphoric, 118–119
mismatches with words, 120–121
one-to-one, 120, 130
points, 117–118
in primates, 110–111
reasons for using, 113–114
role in guiding and teaching, 283
as social glue, 136–140
space, time, and causality represented by, 121–123
spatial communication, 104
as spatial-motor, 126, 128
talking aided by, 124
thinking aided by, 124–130
thought revealed by, 119–121, 125, 130–131
thoughts of others changed by, 131–134
truncated action, 111
types, 116–119
words compared to, 110
glyphs, 220, 226–227
goal-directed behavior, 20
grammar, 110, 114, 116
graphics, 284–285
gestures compared to, 114–115
See also diagrams
graphs, 223
bar, 230–231, 230 (fig.)
lines, 230–232, 230 (fig.)
gravity, 1, 63, 187, 223
grid cells, 69–72
grouping, 74, 75–77
Guidonian hand, 135–136, 135 (fig.)
gutter, 244
habituation of looking, 20
handedness, 63
handprints, 192
hands, 284
enhancement of actions of, 282
Guidonian, 135–136, 135 (fig.)
pointing by, 232
use in math or counting, 134–135, 178, 179
hierarchical organization
kinds, 159
partonomies, 77–78, 159
spatial, 77–79
trees, 159–161
hippocampus, 68–71, 147, 156
homeostasis, 169, 271
homunculus, 11–13, 12 (fig.)
horizontal direction as neutral, 223–224
horizontal plane, 170–172
hypotheses, perception overridden by, 55–57
iconic gestures, 118
icons, 220, 236
ideas
actions on, 86
arrays of, 156
brain structure and, 156
forms and, 284–286
gestures and, 284–285
metaphoric gestures depictions of, 118–119
new, 85
nodes for, 155
points and lines in, 157
thinking and, 284
images
animating, 97–98
creating, 94–97
imitation, 22, 30, 31, 283
improvisation, 267
inference, 55, 57, 72
categories and, 77
gesturing and, 126
from line graphs, 230–232
order and, 173–174, 175, 176
from tables, 231–232
transitive, 172, 173–174, 176
innovation, 267–268
inside perspective, 182, 273
insider knowledge, 23–24
instructions, 216–220, 218 (fig.), 219 (fig.)
intentions, 21, 48–49
Ishango bone, 204, 204 (fig.)
joint action, 27–29
judgments, 46–47, 72–73, 79, 82
Kandinsky, Wassily, 229–230, 249
Kanizsa figures, 229, 229 (fig.)
kinds, 158–159
Klee, Paul, 229–230, 232, 259
knowledge, dissemination and accumulation of, 190
Krazy Kat (Herriman), 250, 253 (fig.)
labels, 36–39, 158
landmarks, 80–81, 147–148, 152, 228
language
allocentric perspective and, 147
alphabetic, 194
anaphors, 245
in comics, 249
describing space and action in space, 184–187
development of, 186
discourse forms, 239
evolution of, 110–111
gestures and graphics compared to, 115
logographic, 194
manner of motion, expressions of, 246
ordering and, 175
perspectives and, 150–151
points and lines in, 157
semantic congruity, 175–176
spatial of the designed world, 286–288
thought and, 90, 186
time and, 164, 170–171
&nbs
p; writing, 192, 194
Last Supper (da Vinci), 140
laws in the world, 287
laws of cognition. See Cognitive Laws
L’Encyclopédie (Diderot and d’Alembert), 221, 221 (fig.)
line graphs, 230–231, 230 (fig.)
linear bias, 168–169
lines, 229–230
aliases of, 156
asymmetric, 180
as basic building blocks, 157
boundaries and, 179–180
in designed world, 286–287
directionality, 170–171
edges, 157
illusory, 229 (fig.)
inferences from, 230–232
inside perspectives, 182
in Kanizsa figures, 229, 229 (fig.)
meanings of, 238
in the mind and in the world, 163
movement and, 228–230
order and, 163, 171–172, 175, 180
as polysemous, 227
on sketch maps, 228
time on, 163–165
ubiquity of, 229
links
in networks, 161
nodes (boxes) connected by, 155–156
patterns of, 156
Little Nemo (McCay), 250, 251 (fig.)
Little Sammy Sneeze (McCay), 250, 252 (fig.)
logic, Euler diagrams, 209, 209 (fig.)
logographic writing, 194
London tube map, 198–199
looking, habituation of, 20
mapping
abstract concepts to space, 224
congruent, 134–135
direct, 148, 208, 238, 261
reading/writing order and, 223–225
maps, 194–203, 283
as allocentric, 183–184
ancient and historic, 94–199, 195 (fig.)–197 (fig.), 200 (fig.)
in the brain, 68–71
conceptual, 71–72, 201
effect on the world, 192
flattened spatial framework, 67
history of, 67–68
London tube, 198–199
math notation compared, 207–208
in minds as cognitive collages, 72–73
perspective, 146–148
pitch, 211
representations, 87
rotation and alignment errors in fictional maps, 74–77
route, 227–228, 228 (fig.)
rules of thumb for design, 201–203
sketch, 145, 227–228, 228 (fig.), 285
spatial, 71–72
of stars, 195
stories and, 68
as surveys, 182–183
use in context, 199
uses for, 199–201
marking, 138
marks in space, 220, 226–227
Marshall Islanders, 196, 196 (fig.), 198
math notation, 192, 206, 207–208
mathematics, 203–208
diagrams and culture, 207–208
number systems, 174–179
skills, spatial skills and, 102
space in, 208
tallies, 203–205, 204 (fig.)
use of hand in, 134–135
meaning
elements of, 238
expression of multiple, 252–255
mechanical system, 97, 101, 102
memorability, 236–237, 239
memory, 34
brain structures involved in, 70–71
for faces, 41
perception overridden by, 64
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