scientific debate on, 784-822
sorting vs. selection and, 659, 670-671, 783-784
“species problem in paleontology” and, 774-781
tiers of time and, 1322, 1327-1330, 1339-1340
time scales in nature and, 675, 765
punctuated equilibrium theory, critiques of, 77, 784-822
ad hominem accusations and, 1000-1010, 1014
based on definability of paleospecies, 784-796
charges of dishonesty and, 1014
conformity with models and, 77, 812-822
cultural impacts of, 972-979
as devoid of content, 1019-1021
episodes in history of the theory and, 979-999
“failed” predictions and, 802-822
generous reactions of colleagues and, 1022-1024
jealousy and, 1012-1013, 1014-1022
personal reactions of professionals and, 999-1024
political agenda and, 1017-1019
refutation by cases and, 802-812
speciation as non-primary in
macroevolution and, 796-802
as unoriginal, 1014-1017
“urban legend” history of theory and, 1006-1010
punctuated equilibrium theory, implications of, 874-972
above the species level, 79, 916-922, 936-952
below the species level, 79, 931-936
conceptual homology and, 928-931, 952
conceptualization of the history of life and, 893-894, 895, 897-901
evolutionary mechanisms and, 874-922
generalizability and, 876-877, 922-972
macroevolutionary theory and, 781 -784
mathematical models of systems and, 79, 922-928
models for change in systems and, 922-928, 970
for other disciplines, 952-872
stasis as mechanism and, 875-885
punctuated equilibrium theory, research in, 77-78, 822-874
ancestral survival criterion and, 76, 794-796, 840-850
dominant relative frequency studies and, 854-874
fine structure of punctuations and, 850-854
inference of cladogenesis and, 840-850
role of case studies in testability and, 822-824, 830
stasis patterns and, 824-839
punctuations. See also abrupt appearance of species; stasis
analogs in ecosystems, 946-952
analogs in lineages and, 939-946
dissection of, 769-772, 850-854
duration of, 76, 768-772, 851-852
mechanisms in evolutionary theory and, 885-922
operational definition of, 766, 767-773
Puriana, 827-828, 829, 842
pythons, 1172-1173
“quantum evolution,” 522, 529-531
Queller, D. C., 1282-1284
Quetelet, A., 595
quirky functional shift as consistent with Darwinism, 1246-1247, 1258
Darwin’s solution to, 1218-1224
exaptation as term and, 1229-1234
franklins and, 1278-1279
implications of, 1224-1229
spandrels and, 1258
structural input into Darwinian theory and, 1227-1229
racial differences, 220
racial ontogeny. See phyletic life cycles, concept of
radioactive decay, 493, 635n
Raff, R. A., 1089-1091, 1100, 1109
Rancourt, D. E., 1103
Rand, D. A., 923
random change, theories of, 684-689, 1314-1315, 1326. See also
[Page 1425]
genetic drift; isotropy of variation; neutral theory of molecular evolution
randomness, concept of, 1035-1037
range of variation, 60
rapidity, definition of, 767-768, 1142-1143
“rate genes,” concept of, 68, 1038-1039
Raup, D. M., 27, 736, 819, 820, 892, 1307-1308, 1314
“field of bullets” model of extinction and, 736, 949, 1323-1326
“kill curve” of, 1324-1326
Raush, W., 1152
Ray, J., 65, 117, 925
R-cuts (revision cuts), 19, 20-21
“reciprocal altruism,” 134
reductionism
gene selectionism and, 616-619, 634
mathematical modelling of selection and, 663-664
“molecular clocks” and, 810-812
scaling in nature and, 676
redundancy, principle of, 107-108
regression toward the mean, concept of, 343-344
regulatory genes. See channeling; historical constraint; Hox genes
relative frequency, 147-148, 157, 159. See also dominant relative frequency
assessment of punctuated equilibrium and, 772-774, 802-803, 823, 854-874
Bateson and, 413-415
biotic competition and, 472-473, 478
Darwin’s use of, 255-260, 472-473
importance of, in natural history, 854-856
Lamarckism and, 354
neutral theory and, 686-687
orthogenesis and, 354-355
primacy of natural selection and, 255-260
spandrels and, 1258-1270
Rensberger, B., 974, 983
replication, as criterion of agency distinction between replicators and interactors and, 72, 615-616, 642n
fallacies of reasoning and, 619-622, 635, 643
reporting bias, 861-864. See also publication bias
reproduction, as criterion for individuality, 608-609, 612
reproductive drive, 724-731
restriction phase of Modern Synthesis, 505-518
rctrotransposition, 1273, 1274
revisions to Darwinian theory. See also hierarchy theory; positive constraint; punctuated equilibrium theory
agency and, 21, 49
efficacy and, 49
evolvability and, 1271-1272, 1274
importance of cross-level spandrels and, 1293-1293
levels of, and coral model, 19-22, 146
scope and, 21, 22, 50, 52
thematic consistency and, 22-23
validation for, 49-50
Zeitgeist and, 29-33
Reyment, R. A., 753, 852
Rhizosolenia species, 842
Rhodes, F. H. T., 1015, 1023
Richards, O. W., 525
Rightmire, G. P., 833
Roberts, J., 753
Robison, R. A., 754
Robson, G. C., 525
rodent species, 832-833, 842
cladogenesis and, 847-850, 853
Romanes, G. J., 147n, 210, 216
Rosko, D., 883
Ross, R. M., 831, 967
Roth, G., 875
Roux, W., 223
Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus, 208, 210-214
Roy, K., 1241
rudimentary organs, 111-112, 339
Rudwick, M. J. S., 27, 1304
runic alphabet of futhark, 1238-1239
Ruse, M., 132-133, 134, 970
Russell, E. S., 159, 329
Form and Function, 163
Russian genetics, 532-533
Rutherford, Lord, 493, 635n
Ryan, M. J., 1287
Sachs, J., 419
Sacks, O., 37
Saedler, H., 1094, 1095
Saether, O. A., 1088
salamanders, 1039
saltationism, 67-68, 396-466. See also Bateson, William; De Vries, Hugo
Bateson and, 396-415
Darwin’s requirements for variation and, 143-144
developmental saltations and, 1142-1145
[Page 1426]
saltationism (continued)
De Vries and, 67-68, 427-433
dismissal of, in Modern Synthesis, 507-508, 509-510
evo-devo results and, 83-84, 1142-1147
Galton and, 346-347
Goldschmidt and, 144, 453, 456-457, 465-466
Mendelism and, 166
Mivart and, 1220-1221, 1222
punctuated equilibrium and, 75, 781, 986-987, 988, 1005-1006, 1008-1010
saltations from small genetic changes and, 1142-1147
Salvini-Plawen, L. V., 1123
sampling bias, 803-805, 826, 1309-1311
sampling rate, 949
“sandpile” model, 924
San Marco cathedral, 1249-1258
Santa Fe Institute. See complex systems theory; Kauffman, Stuart Santos, R. S., 1240
Sapienza, C., 693
Savage, C. H., 978
scaling, 674-677, 704. See also geological time
errors about punctuated equilibrium and, 986, 987, 988, 996
external vs. internal environment and, 738-741
punctuated equilibrium model and, 674-675, 778-781, 811, 830
Sceloporus, 812
Schaeffer, B., 522
Schaffer, H. E., 996, 1016
Schaffer, W. M., 883
Schankler, D. M., 833, 842, 864
Schindewolf, O. H., 65, 1086, 1305-1306
Schneer, C., 27-28
Schoch, R. M., 871
Schopf, T. J. M., 774, 775
Schwalbe, G., 210
Schwartz, J. H., 1144
Schweber, S. S., 122, 123, 229, 230, 232-233, 237-238
Schwenk, K., 1037n
science. See also biases in science; empirical issues; methodology
concept of constraint in, 1032-1037
criteria for importance of hypotheses in, 1308
disinterest in contingency in, 1340-1342
evolution as, 23-24, 97-99, 116, 590-591
humanistic disciplines and, 968-970
plurality of explanatory modes in, 1332-1337
structure of taxonomies in, 1284-1286
stymied practice in, 761-765
unanswerable questions in, 790-791
Science, 932n, 983
science fiction, 675, 676
Scientific American series, 996
scientific writing
historical perspective in, 35-37
personal information in, 34-35
Scilla, A., La vana speculazione disingannata dal senso, 16, 17, 18
scope, as Darwinian principle, 15. See also catastrophic mass extinction; fossil record
catastrophic mass extinction and, 484-492, 1296-1303, 1312, 1313n
coral model and, 20, 21, 22
Darwin’s theoretical argument and, 59, 61, 159-163, 1296-1303
empirics and, 26
evolvability and, 1276-1277
hardening of Modern Synthesis and, 71, 556-566, 579-584, 586
historical alternatives to Darwinism and, 587, 588
internalist vs. externalist accounts and, 160-161
Kelvin and, 492-502
Lyellian uniformity assumption and, 480-484
modern critiques and, 589-590, 1306-1320
proposed revisions and, 21, 22, 50, 52
punctuated equilibrium and, 971
Scopes trial, 981, 989
Scott, M. P., 1100
Scott, W. B., 1082, 1084-1085
S-cuts (subsidiary cuts), 19, 20, 21-22
second law of thermodynamics, 494-496, 497, 511-512
Sedgwick, A., 193n
Seilacher, A., 1051, 1052, 1054
Selander, R. K., 816
selectionist mechanics, 722
distinction between replicators and interactors and, 72, 615-616, 642n
selection as subcategory of sorting and, 659, 670-671, 783-784
weighting of, in trends, 886-893
[Page 1427]
selective agency, definition of, 613-625
“selector genes,” 1145
“self-help” literature, 978
“selfish DNA” hypothesis, 679, 693-694, 1268
“selfish gene,” 618-619, 638-641
Sepkoski, J. J., 793, 917, 1308, 1317, 1324
sequelae. See also spandrels
Bateson and, 414
biotic competition and, 477-479
trends and, 78
sequencing, and inference in history, 103-104, 106-108
serial homology, 1071, 1072-1073, 1079
Seventh Day Adventists, 988
Seward, A. C., 416, 417-418, 440, 567, 569
sex ratios, 648-649, 678, 692
sexual dimorphism, 1261-1263
Shakespeare, W., 24
Sheehan, P. M., 949, 951, 1311, 1318, 1320
Sheldon, P. R., 78, 872-874, 993
Shelley, P. B., 24
Sheng, G., 1131-1132
“shifting balance” theory, 523-524, 554-556, 702
Shubin, N., 846-847, 1140, 1141-1142, 1167-1168, 1170
sieve metaphor, 621-622
Signor. P. W., 1309-1310
Signs (journal), 988
Simberloff, D., 27
similarities in lineages. See convergence vs. parallelism; deep homology; evolutionary developmental biology; homologies across phyla
Simpson, G. G., 520, 577, 578, 586, 1069
abrupt appearance of fossil species and, 755
anagenesis and, 777
anticipation of punctuated equilibrium by, 1015-1017
concept of parallelism and, 1076-1077, 1079, 1081, 1086-1088
hardening of Modem Synthesis and, 522, 528-531, 558, 559, 562, 572
The Major Features of Evolution, 530-531
The Meaning of Evolution, 38
Tempo and Mode in Evolution, 70, 522, 528-530, 782
Siwalik Hills, 745
size scales in nature, levels of selection and, 674-677, 680-681
skull
as modification of vertebrae, 318-319, 1112, 1113
nonfusion of sutures in, 332, 1247, 1249
Slack, J. M. W., 1102, 1151
small-scale variability
as Darwinian requirement, 143-144, 175
Mendelian basis for, 509-510
Smit, A. F. A., 1241
Smith, A. B., 825-826, 827, 828, 845, 853
Smith, Adam, 59, 60, 193, 231, 232n, 595
The Wealth of Nations, 121-125
Smith, C. G., 947-948
Smocovitis, V. B., 503, 542-543
snails, coiling in, 1259-1260. See also African lake mollusks; Cepaea; Cerion
Sober, E., 600-601, 625-626, 636, 648, 650, 654-656, 678-679, 681, 683, 690
sociology, and punctuated equilibrium, 978
Sofer, B., 988
solace, 136-137
“somatic environment,” 696
Somit, A., 952
Soret, F., 310
Sorhannus, U., 831, 842
sorting, 1008. See also drift; evolutionary mechanisms
in macroevolutionary theory, 719, 722, 886-893
selection as subcategory of, 659, 670-671, 783-784
Spalax ehrenbergi (blind mole rat), 688, 1281-1282
spandrels, 43, 49, 52, 78, 81, 1054-1055
centrality of, in evolutionary theory, 1258-1270
concept of, 1280-1281, 1288, 1293-1294
cross-level, 87, 1266-1270, 1280, 1281, 1286-1294
evolvability and, 87
relative frequency and, 1258-1270
relative frequency of, 87
San Marco architectural analogy and, 1249-1258
[Page 1428]
special homology, 1071, 1073, 1079
speciation. See also abrupt appearance of species; anagenesis; branching; cladogenesis; punctuated equilibrium theory
cladogenetic vs. anagenetic modes of, 436, 813-822
concept of speciation rate and, 669-670
in De Vries’ mutation theory, 443-446
directional, in macroevolution, 724-731
frequency of, and evolutionary age, 812
hardening of Modern Synthesis and, 533-541, 561-566, 578-579
Mayr’s allopatric theory and, 779-780
modes of, and Mayr, 533-541, 702
in punctuated equilibrium, 774-781, 796-802
punctuational patterns not due to, 793-796
speciation rate, concept of, 669-670
species drift, 731, 735-738, 743-744
“species problem in paleontology,” 775-776
species selection
aggregate characters of species and, 664-665
arguments against higher-level selection and, 646-652
characteristics of species-individual and, 703-712, 799-802
criterion for, 652-673
cross-level spandrels and, 1291-1294
Darwin and, 50, 129-132, 135-136, 236-248
De Vries and, 68, 448-451, 665
efficacy of, 651-652, 709-712, 886-893
emergent characters vs. emergent fitnesses in, 73, 656-666, 671-673
evolvability and, 1274-1276
Fisher and, 644-647, 651-652, 782
interactions among species-level processes and, 731-735
interactions with other causal forces, 743-744, 1291-1294
intracorporeal competition and, 212n
logical validation of, 644-646
principle of divergence and, 63, 226-227, 229, 241
propensity for extinction and, 246-248
punctuated equilibrium model and, 41, 782, 971
realms of, 668-670
species as individuals and, 604-608, 612, 703-704, 781-782
species as interactors and, 704-709
strengths of, 741-744
as term, 51, 665
unified criteria for, 667-670
“species selection on variability,” 665-666
Spencer, H.
Lamarck and, 218
Weismann and, 197-198, 199, 204-205, 206, 207
spontaneous generation, 183-184
squamate species, viviparity in, 942-946
“square snails,” 1046
squid, 1126-1127, 1245-1246
stability. See also stasis
vs. continuity, and causal principles, 1327-1328
interactions among levels of selection and, 678-679
stabilizing selection, and stasis, 878, 880-882
Stanley, S. M., 41, 448n, 566, 705, 715, 739, 767, 814-817, 859-861, 902-903, 904, 980-981, 999, 1008
stasis. See also dominant relative frequency
analogs in clades, 936-939
causes of, 78, 877-885
criteria for individuality and, 606, 607
as data, 75, 759-765, 971
De Vries and, 449-450
empirical support for, 651-652, 824-839, 875-876
Falconer’s observations and, 745-749
Fisher’s argument against species selection and, 782
fluctuations and, 767, 801, 835-836
gradualism and, 149n-150n, 606
imperfection as solution to Darwinian problem of, 755-765
as issue in evolutionary theory, 874-885, 971
operational definition of, 766, 767-768
paleontological silence about, 749-755, 875
in subdivided populations of species, 78, 881-883
tempo of evolutionary change and, 782-783
in unbranched segments of lineages, 824-839
Stearns, S. C., 1034-1035
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The Structure of Evolutionary Theory Page 236