Islam and Pakistan’s Political Culture
Page 34
emanating from the ‘foundational’ values, or ideals, in Islam. The challenge,
then, remains to actualize it in reality. Irrespective, though, against all odds
Pakistan persists – and in the words of Neruda, ‘you can cut all the flowers
but you cannot keep spring from coming’.40
Notes
1 Hafez, Mohammed. Why Muslims Rebel: Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World, (London: Lynne Rienner, 2004) pp. 199–200.
166
Islam and Pakistan’s Political Culture
2 Ibid., 200.
3 Ogburn, William F. On Culture and Social Change, Otis Dudley Duncan (ed.), (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1964) p. 19.
4 Inglehart, Ronald. The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles among Western Publics, p. 246.
5 See, Schutz, Alfred. Phenomenology of the Social World, p. 3; Berger, Peter and Luckmann, Thomas. The Social Construction of Knowledge: A Treatise on the
Sociology of Knowledge, pp. 67–75; Geertz, Clifford. ‘The Impact of the Concept
of Culture on the Concept of Man’ in the Interpretation of Cultures, p. 45.
6 Hallaq, Wael. The Impossible State, p. 70.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid., p. 71.
9 Ahmad, Eqbal. ‘Islam and Politics’, in Islam, Politics and the State: The Pakistan Experience, p. 13.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid., p. 22.
12 Ibid., p. 23.
13 Ahmad, Eqbal. ‘Islam and Politics’, in Islam, Politics and the State: The Pakistan Experience, p. 23.
14 Ramadan, Tariq. Islam, the West and the Challenges of Modernity, pp. 76–81.
15 Hamid, Eltigani. The Qur’an and Politics, p. 3.
16 Ahmed, Ishtiaq. The Concept of an Islamic State: An Analysis of the Ideological Controversy in Pakistan, p. 46.
17 Beekun, Rafik and Badawi, Jamal. Leadership: An Islamic Perspective, p. 9.
18 Ahmad, Eqbal. ‘Islam and Politics’, in Islam, Politics and the State: The Pakistan Experience, p. 25.
19 See, Eley, Geoff. Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000, pp. 21–29; LaSelva, Samuel. ‘Understanding Canada: Federalism, Multiculturalism
and the Will to Live Together’, in Edited by James Bickerton and Alain G. Gagnon
(eds), Canadian Politics, (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2004).
20 Ahsan, Aitzaz. ‘Were Iqbal and Jinnah Secularists?’ in Pakistan Between Secularism and Islam: Ideology, Issues and Conflict, Tarik Jan, et al., p. 61.
21 Ishtiaq Ahmed. The Concept of an Islamic State: An Analysis of the Ideological Controversy in Pakistan, p. 79.
22 See, Ahmed, Ishtiaq. The Concept of an Islamic State: An Analysis of the Ideological Controversy in Pakistan, pp. 1–13.
23 Khan, Hamid. Constitutional and Political History of Pakistan, p. 4.
24 Sadiki, Larbi. ‘Civic Islamism: The Brotherhood and Ennahda,’ Aljazeera English Online, November 15, 2011.
25 Ibid.
26 Khan, Roedad. Pakistan: A Dream Gone Sour, p. 201.
27 Malik, Iftikhar. ‘Between Identity-Politics and Authoritarianism in Pakistan’, in Amyn B. Sajoo (ed.), Civil Society in the Muslim World, p. 286.
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28 ‘Fifty years, Fifty Questions’, in The Herald, 28 (1) (1997): 139–92.
29 Malik, Iftikhar. ‘Between Identity-Politics and Authoritarianism in Pakistan’, in Amyn B. Sajoo (ed.), Civil Society in the Muslim World, Op. cit. 285.
30 ‘Fifty years, Fifty Questions,’ in The Herald, 28 (1) (1997): 139–92.
31 Ibid.
32 Mustafa, Iqbal. ‘37.2 Million Voters are Fake: NADRA’, in the Daily Times Online, www.dailymailnews.com/0311/10/FrontPage/index.php?id=11.
33 newsweekpakistan.com/imran-khan-welcomes-vote-but-alleges-rigging/.
34 Lodhi, Maleeha. ‘The Verdict’, in The News Online, 17 May 2013, www.thenews.
com.pk.
35 Ibid.
Conclusion
167
36 Ibid.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid.
40 Neruda, Pablo, in ‘Neruda Quotes’ in www.thinkexist.com. Retrieved on 14
February 2007.
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Index
Abductive research strategy: 6–7
Communal violence: 107, 113
Abou El Fadl, Khaled: 82
Comparative political culture research:
Abrahamic traditions: 5, 77
20, 22, 24–25
Abu Bakr, Caliph: 55, 65–7
Conference of Saqifa: 66
Act of 1947: 114, 116
Congress Party (Indian): 103, 112–14
Afghanistan: 10
Consensus – ‘ijma’: 64, 72
Ahmed, Eqbal: 159
Constitution – origins: 113–14
Al-Farabi, Abu Nasr: 44–46, 158
Constitution – role of Islam: 115, 133
Al-Faruqi, Ismail: 56–59
Constitutional amendments: 128–32
Ali, Caliph: 69–71
Constitutional development: 112–15
Allahu A’lam: 50
Consultation – ‘shura’: 55, 63–67, 72,
Almond and Verba’s Civic Culture: 19
78, 157
Almond, Gabriel: 18–21, 24
Contextual sphere of inquiry: 2
Apprenticeship: 15–17
Council of Islamic ideology: 122, 128
Arab Spring: 4, 109, 162
Creative minority: 156
Asabiyya: 3, 156
Critical discourse analysis: 6–8
Audi, Robert: 39–41
Cultural analysis: 6, 14, 27
Awami League: 120, 125–26
Cultural imperialism: 37
Cultural lag: 24, 157
Bangladesh: 126, 145
Cultural relativity: 15, 25
Basic Principles Committee: 115–16
Culture – meaning: 14
Baya – pledge of allegiance: 55–56
Behaviouralism (Political Culture
De Beauvoir, Simone: 83
typology): 22–26
Democracy – Islamic: 115
Bhutto, Benazir: 131
Democracy: 19–23, 115, 122
Bhutto, Zulfiqar: 125–31, 147
Democratization: 4
Blind adherence to custom: 17
Demonization: 78, 88
Bourdieu, Pierre: 7
Denial of knowledge: 38, 40–42, 49
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British Empire: 12, 97, 113, 145
Descartes, Rene: 41
British Raj: 97–107, 113–14
Discursive interpretation: 6
Doctrine of necessity: 778, 118, 121,
Cabinet Mission Plan: 114
127, 130, 143
Certainty of knowing (knowledge):
Dominant party: 138, 141, 144–49
42–43, 47, 49
Doubt (knowledge): 38, 40, 42
Charles Taylor: 26, 36–38
Dynamic process of faith: 81
Chief Justice of Pakistan: 150
Christians of Jerusalem: 66
East Pakistan: 120, 122–27, 145
Civil-Military relations: 3, 120, 161
Edmund Husserl: 27
Clash of Civilizations: 9
Eidos: 76
Index
169
Election Commission of Pakistan: 132,
Individual-centric approach of political
163, 166
culture research: 18
Enduring cultural component: 1, 28–29,
Inglehart, Richard: 28–29, 157
35, 154–56
Instrumentality of reason: 36
Epistemic dissonance: 37
> Inter-subjective meanings: 6, 26
Epistemic tradition: 4, 36–37, 49–51
Interpretivism – political culture: 23–27
Epistemology – meaning: 35
Interpretivist political culture research:
Equality (humanity): 57–59
22, 26
Extrinsic knowing (Epistemology): 44–49
Intrinsic knowing – Epistemology:
45–47
Faith and knowledge: 37, 47
Islamic Civic culture: 72, 76–77,
False understanding of individuality: 16
83, 86, 90
Foundational sphere of
Islamic Civilization: 1, 9, 37, 160
inquiry – definitions: 2–4, 29
Islamic epistemology: 37, 43
Freedom of religion: 68, 72
Islamic Justification of belief: 47–50
Friere, Paolo: 91
Islamic political culture – origins: 54–56,
72, 128, 131, 156
Gap in Political culture research: 12,
Islamic state: 5, 65, 102, 114
28–29, 157
Islamization: 130
Geertz, Clifford: 26–28
Islamophobia: 11
Gettier Problem: 40, 43, 47–51
Globalization: 11, 15, 60, 78
J.G. Herder: 18
Governance: 5, 8, 22, 61, 103, 126, 141
Jamaat-i-Islami: 102, 124–26
Government of India Act 1935: 113
Jihad: 89–90
Grotius, Hugo: 127
Jizyah: 89–90
John Gray: 5
Habitualization: 28
Judeo-Christo-Islamic tradition: 77
Hadeeth: 54, 62
Justification of belief: 35–36, 39–43, 50
Hafez, Muhammad: 156
Hallaq, Wael: 158
Kant, Immanuel: 36, 41
Hereditary politics: 146
Kargil: 132, 140
High Classicalism: 5, 54, 58, 176
Khan, Ayub General: 121–25, 127,
Hosgoru – seeing another in a good
131, 133
way: 76
Khan, Imran: 151, 160, 163–64
Hudood Laws: 130
Khan, Liaquat Ali: 115, 139, 141
Human diversity: 82
Khilafah: 61–64
Human fallibility: 40, 41, 49–50
Human nature: 58, 80
La Convivencia – meaning: 76
Humanity – interconnected origins:
Lawyer’s Movement: 132, 151, 162–63
81–83
Leadership Accountability: 64–67, 72,
106, 114, 133
Ibn Khaldun: 17, 158
Letwin, Robin: 14–16
Idea of Pakistan: 98, 102
Lodhi, Maleeha: 164
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Ideological clash/conflict: 109, 115,
133, 145
Malaise of Modernity: 36
Ideological incoherence: 112, 138, 156
Malik, Iftikhar: 97, 99, 101–5, 107, 133
Ideological superstructure: 115, 140, 149
Mass mobilization – agitation politics:
Ideology – failure to develop: 97, 120,
144, 148, 151
126, 141–43, 148
Maudoodi, Maulana: 101–3, 124–25
Implied mandate: 127–31, 143
Middle East: 78, 91, 98, 108–9, 156
Inclusion (Social and Political): 79–83
Milbus: 142
Independence of judiciary: 133, 163
Militant fundamentalism: 71
Individual sphere of inquiry: 2–3, 55–57,
Military assistance program (MAP):
156, 159
139–40
170
Index
Military interventionism: 138–41
Political culture typologies: 20, 159–62
Military-bureaucratic elites: 138–44,
Political development: 20, 24, 141,
147–48, 150–51
148, 151
Military-hegemonic political system:
Political instability (source): 97, 116,
141, 142–45,
118, 120, 124, 128, 160
Millenarianism: 5
Political institutions: 143, 147, 155
Mixed-nature democracy: 20
Political Leadership during the Pakistan
Model Islamic State: 63, 120, 133
Movement: 101–6, 109
Modernization theory: 20, 24, 29, 157
Political Leadership in Islam: 99–101
Muhammad Ali Jinnah: 3, 104, 106–8,
Political Leadership: 2, 66
114, 139
Political Liberalism: 146, 148, 161
Muhammad Iqbal: 3, 104–6, 197,
Political orientations: 15–18
121, 158
Political philosophy: 54
Multiplicity of definitions of Political
Political stability: 122, 143, 145,
culture: 17–21
159, 161
Musharraf, Pervez: 112, 132, 142, 150
Political Values (Qur’an and Sunnah):
Muslim League (Political Party): 103,
54–56, 63, 65–67, 71, 97, 137, 155–58
106–9, 113, 145, 161
Political values: 25, 36
Positivism: 6, 22
Naturalization of political science: 23
Prerogative writs: 116–17
Naturalizing epistemology: 48
Prophet Muhammad: 45, 54–55, 57–58,
Nawaz Sharif, Prime Minister: 112,
61–68, 81–86, 89, 99, 160
131–33, 150, 164
Prophetic Sayings: 2, 4, 8, 12, 54–56,
Normative values: 76–79
64–66, 70–72, 76, 106, 119, 128, 157
Objectives Resolution: 115, 117, 119,
Quaid-i-Azam: 104–6
122, 129, 163
Qualitative research: 6, 23, 25
Obstacles to political stability: 159
Quantitative research: 6, 22, 24
Orientalism: 83
Qur’anic Discourse: 82
Qur’anic Epistemology: 36–38, 42–47
Pact of the Virtuous: 84
Pakistan – origins: 101–5
Rahman, Fazlur: 35, 59
Pakistan movement: 97–99, 101, 103–5
Rahman, Mujibur: 125, 126
Pakistan People’s Party
Rashidun Era: 54–56, 65, 71–72, 77,
Parliamentarians (PPP): 131, 147, 165
90, 157
Peaceful Coexistence: 12, 78, 103–6,
Rationalization of power: 100
81–82, and 85–88
Regime confrontation: 144, 148, 151
Perceptual knowledge: 46
Revivalist: 101–2, 104–6, 112, 115, 122,
Permanence (Values): 1–4, 50, 54, 115,
128, 141, 151, 156, 161–65
155–58
Revolutionary legality: 121, 143
Pervasive error: 41–42, 49
Phenomenology: 27–29
Sahih Al-Bukhari: 54–56
Plausibility of knowledge: 38–42
Secular: 79, 97–102
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Pluralism: 68, 78, 85–86, 90, 150
Secularism: 98–99
Political accountability: 20, 66
Secularist: 103, 104, 108, 109, 114–20,
Political Authority: 19–20
122–28, 133, 141, 145, 147, 156,
Political Culture – System level
159, 164
approach: 18–19
Shari’ah: 102, 132
Political culture (definitions): 17, 22
Shura: 55, 63–69, 71–73
Political culture orientations: 18
Skeptic: 36, 38–44, 46–47, 49
Political culture research ‘Clash’: 25–27
Social construction: 35, 97
Political culture research ‘hegemony’:
Social tension in Pakistan: 99
23–25
Sociological political culture research:
Political culture research: 22–24
20, 25
Index
171
Sources of Legitimacy (Islamic): 8–9,
Traditionalist: 97, 101–5, 108–9, 114–16,
12, 43, 72, 77, 81–82, 100
119–22, 125, 128–31, 140, 145, 156
Sovereignty: 56–57, 59, 72, 90, 113,
Transparency: 62, 72, 163
115, 157
Two-nation theory: 107, 114
Stability of Muslim political life: 160
Stephen Welch’s Political culture
Umar, Caliph: 65–68
research methodologies: 23–25
Ummah: 59–60, 63, 72, 99, 142, 160
Stock of knowledge: 23, 27–29, 35, 155
United States: 10, 77, 139–40
Sunnah: 35, 76–80, 90–91, 119, 132, 136
Uthman, Caliph: 55, 65, 68–71, 100
Utopia/Utopianism: 4–6, 55, 108
Tamizzudin, Moulvi: 117–18
Tawhid: 56, 79, 91
Value-neutrality: 24–26
Tehrik-i-Insaf: 151, 163–64
Thick description: 26–27
War on Terror: 10, 140
Three Spheres of Inquiry: 2–3, 150,
155–56.
Zakah: 60, 62, 90, 65, 119
Tolerance: 76–82
Zia, Muhammad General: 126–29,
Tradition: 15–20
131–33, 148, 150
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Document Outline
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of figures
Maps
Chronology of major political events
Acknowledgements
1. Introduction Research design, strategy and method
Motivation for this book
Organization of this book
2. Deconstructing political culture Introduction
The importance of political culture
Defining political culture
Political culture research
Hegemony
Clash
Phenomenology
Conclusion
Part 1: Foundational sphere of inquiry 3. The theory of knowledge and Qur’anic epistemology Introduction
Deconstructing occidental epistemology
Plausibility
Denial
Qur’anic epistemology – ‘certainty of knowing’