Human Universals
Page 30
(See also Differences)
as intercultural brokers, 154
myths of [see Myth(s), anthropological]
physical, 41, 149
refutations of studies of, 9–10, 14–23, 27–31, 64n
reliance on human similarities of, 154, 178
skepticism toward (Freudian) psychology, 38
skepticism toward universals, 1, 5, 6, 26, 54, 58, 64, 73, 75, 81, 82
as specialists in the study of hunters and gatherers, 86, 150
taboos of [see Taboo(s)]
Anthropology:
aim of, 80–81, 142
assumptions of, 6, 156
contradictions in, 149
dominant paradigm in, 149
handicapped by its assumptions, 156
and human evolution, 86
impressionism of, 155
influence of, on moral philosophy, 154
and problem of separating nature from culture, 147
propositions informing, 145–149
and psychology, 26, 38, 87, 110, 150, 156
role of, in determining what is universal, 149–150
special role of, 153–154
and study of human mind, 150, 156
and study of mental mechanisms, 86
unconcern of, with origins and evolution, 55, 56, 143, 144
Anthropomorphisation, 139, 168, 170, 180, 187
Antinomous thinking (see Binary distinctions)
Antireductionism, 56–58, 60, 72n, 73n, 120, 143–146
(See also Reductionism)
Antonyms, 133
Appell, George N., 47–48
Arbitrariness, cultural and linguistic, 6, 24, 25, 65, 77, 131, 146
of color classification, 11–13
as hallmark of culture, 148
limits on, 98
overstatement of, 148–149
Archaeology, 150
Archoses, 96–97, 117
Arens, William, 118, 119n, 123n, 124–125
Art, 59, 114, 115–116, 158, 165, 166, 169, 176
associated with ritual, 167
decorative, 69, 140, 162
literary, 162, 176
themes in, 158
(See also Aesthetics; Adornment)
Artificial intelligence, 85, 144
Associationism, 84
Athletic sports, 69
Attractiveness, 180, 181
Authority, legal, 188
Bagish, Henry, 155
Bamberger, Joan, 23
Basic Color Terms, 10–14, 37–38, 80, 81
Basic colors, 13, 133
Basic vocabulary words, 177
Bastian, Adolph, 54n, 55
Beauty, standards of, 161
Behavior:
genetics, 147n
interpretation of, 134, 168
sociocultural and biological meanings of, 101
Behavioral propensities, 133
Behaviorism, 60–61, 73, 77, 83, 85, 143, 144
Beliefs, 59, 139
Benedict, Ruth, 1, 14n, 64–66, 69, 143
(See also Patterns of Culture)
Berlin, Brent, 10–14, 37–38
(See also Basic Color Terms)
Bidney, David, 70–71, 86n, 149, 155
on human nature and universals, 71
Binary distinctions, 90, 92, 99, 150, 166, 170, 178, 190
Biogrammar, 81
Biography/hagiography, 152
Biological and ontogenetic explanations, 113
Biological clocks, 93
Biological givens, 92, 117
Biological sciences:
earlier turmoil in, 60, 62, 143
impact of, in understanding incest avoidance, 128
recent influence on anthropology, 82–83, 87
theoretically organized by evolutionary theory, 144
Biological universals, 49
Kluckhohn on, 72
Kroeber on, 64
Wissler on, 59
Biology:
as basis for universals, 59, 70, 72, 149
and language, 77–78
shapes human behavior, denied, 19
Biology/culture, contrast of, 40–41, 56, 62–64, 88, 102, 143
Biology/psychology as basis or explanation of universals, 6, 62, 71, 88, 94, 97, 117
Biology/society, contrast of (see Biology/culture)
Biophobia, 155
Birdwhistell, Ray L., 23–24
Birth and death, consciousness of, 167
Birth customs and practices, 69, 136
Black and white, 13–14, 133, 134, 161, 167
valuation of, 194
Black, white, and red, 12, 14, 161
Bloch, Maurice, 76, 82, 86, 92–94, 153, 155
Bloom, Allan, 155
Boas, Franz, 14, 19, 31, 60, 65, 86
culture concept of, 55
on universals, 55–56, 58
on race, 55
Boasians, 63, 65, 68, 72n
Murdock not among, 63
particularism of, 1
reactions to, 68–69
in study of race/culture, 54, 55, 57, 60
Body:
classification of parts of, 133
decoration (see Adornment)
size, sex differences in, 110
Brain, 82, 86–87 98–99, 113, 144
complexity of, 148
holistic view of, 61
lateral specialization of, 90, 157
lesions and deficits, 82, 85, 99, 144, 150
localization of faculties in, 61n, 85
(See also Localizers)
and poetic line, 116, 150
and religion, 114–115
Brain cell specialization, 85, 144
British social anthropology, 66–68
Brown, Cecil H., 14
Calendar, 69, 133
Hopi, 28, 30, 31
Capital punishment, 141, 187
Categorization, 14
(See also Classification)
Causal thinking, 99, 166, 170
Causation in explanation of universals, 89, 117
Cheating, 198
Childcare, 136, 182
sex differences in providing, 109, 137, 184, 189
Childrearing, 16, 21, 137
(See also Socialization)
Children, 136–137
Chimpanzee Politics, 111
Choice making, 135
Chomsky, Noam, 42–43, 47, 50, 77, 84, 113, 144, 155n, 164
criticizes learning theory, 147
on innateness as a defense against tyranny, 155n
Classification, 14, 133, 167, 169, 170
and aesthetics, 116
of age, 94, 133, 137, 162, 181
and art, 116
of behavioral propensities, 133
of body parts, 133
of color, 77, 200
of flora and fauna, 14, 46, 69, 133
of inner states, 133, 175
of kin, 69, 137, 162, 165, 170
of personality, 199
of sex (gender), 94, 137, 162, 181
fundamental duality, 133–134
of space, 133
of tools, 133
of weather conditions, 133
Class-subclass (logic), 170
Coalitions, 107, 138
Coevolution, 74
Cognitive development, stages of, 166
Cognitive imperative, 99
Collective decisions, 138
Collective identities, 137
Color, 167, 190
classification of, 77, 200
Color terms (see Basic Color Terms)
Coming of Age in Samoa, 9, 14–21, 60, 61, 65, 81, 143, 144
(See also Mead, Margaret)
“Common Denominator of Cultures, The,” 69–70
Common sense, 192
Communication (facial, nonverbal, and symbolic), 134
Comparative Functionalism, 76
Comparative perspective, 145, 156
Complementary filiation, 105
Componential an
alysis, 46, 48n, 75–76, 80, 133
(See also Ethnosemantics)
Conceptualization, 166
Conceptualizing universals, 39–42
Concomitant variation, method of, 89
Conditional statements, 161
Conditional universals (see Universals)
Confessions of a Former Cultural Relativist, 155
Conflict, 59, 138, 176, 178
ways of dealing with, 138
Conjectural reasoning, 134, 150
Consciousness, altered states of, 136, 199
Conservation of energy, 98, 117
Containers, 135, 165
Contempt (and facial expression of), 26, 134, 168, 177
Conversation structure, 185
Cooking, 50, 69, 136, 179, 197
uses of, 95
Coon, Carleton, 71–72
Cooperation, 69, 138, 139, 161, 165
Cosmides, Leda, 83, 85, 86, 103n, 106, 147n, 148
Cosmology (see Worldview)
Counting, 46, 133, 157, 178
Courtship, 69
Coyness display, 48, 52, 83, 85, 101, 134
Cradle traits, 56, 63–64, 71, 95, 159, 164
Critical period, 104, 113, 123, 128, 181
Cross-cultural comparison and generalization, 27, 75, 82
Cross-species studies (see Animal counterparts; Interspecific comparison)
Crying, 83, 134
Cultural and noncultural, difficulty of distinguishing between, 64
Cultural anthropology:
developed by Tylor, 54–56
and explanation of universals, 149–150
not concerned with universals, 64
Cultural determinism, 3, 6, 19, 61, 62, 75, 143, 146, 148
Cultural evolutionists, 73n
Cultural explanations, 88, 97, 103n, 113, 117, 127
Cultural processes, 95
Cultural reflection or recognition, 92–94, 117
Cultural relativism (see Relativism)
Cultural scheme, 71
(See also “The Universal Pattern”)
Cultural traditions rich for humans, 145
Cultural universals, 39–40, 63, 142
as determinants of human nature, 81
(See also Universals, cultural)
Cultural variability, 65, 143, 146
overstatement of, 148–149
Culture, 141, 180, 196
as autonomous level or phenomenon, 6, 56, 58, 60, 62–65, 143–144, 146
criticisms of, 71, 74, 149, 155
comes from nature, 147
concept and dilemma of universals, 62–63
concept in middle-level propositions, 146
definition of, 40, 130
evolution of, 68–69
as exclusive subject of ethnology, 57
and explanation of differences, 146–148
expressive, 153
and the human mind, 72
and language, 40, 98
as locus of universals, 39–42, 50
Malinowski on, 67
material, 40, 58
material determinants of, 68, 144
as principal determinant of human behavior, 6, 62, 75, 143, 146
absence of way to quantify, 148
as product of human action, 99
role of universals in, 150–151
universal model for analysis of, 71
universals as deep syntax and lexicon of, 153
Culture/biology (see Biology/culture; Nature/culture; Nature/nurture)
Culture/nature (see Biology/culture; Nature/culture; Nature/nurture)
Cultures or societies as focus of study, 143
Curiosity, 99, 167, 176
Cutters, 135
Cyclicity, 201
of time, 133
Daily routines, 139, 165
Daly, Martin, 86, 105, 107, 109, 155
Dance, 69, 140, 162, 186, 196
Danger, inability of society to prevent, 193
D’Aquili, Eugene G., 99, 111
Dark and light, 33
Darwin, on emotions, 24
Darwinian evolution as inclusive theoretical framework, 6, 144
Darwinian thought, 62, 143
synthesized with Mendelism, 62, 144
Darwinian view of Westermarck, 120
De Waal, Franz, 111
Deaf language, 41n, 113
Death customs (see Treatment, of the dead)
Death related to sickness, 176
Decision making, 135, 175
collective, 138, 170
Deep and shallow, 132
Deep-noted instruments, 114
Deep processes, structures, universals, 44, 77, 113, 156, 171, 181
Defense mechanisms, 180, 193, 196, 198
Definitions, universally valid, 80
Determinism, sociocultural (see Cultural determinism; Culture)
Differences, emphasis and exaggeration of, 2, 3, 5, 23, 31, 38, 66n, 73, 76, 82, 154–156
self-serving nature of, 154–155
Diffusion, diffusionist explanations, 95, 117
(See also Cradle traits)
Dimension, 133
(See also Measure)
Directions, giving, 133, 181
Discrepancies between talk, thought, and action, 130
Disgust, 26, 134
Displacement, 34, 193
Display rules, 25, 26
Dispositions, 110–111
Dispute settlement, 169
consultation and mediation in, 138
Dissanayake, Ellen, 115–116
Diurnality, 139
Divination, 69, 139, 153n
Division of labor, 39, 69, 161
by sex and age, 48, 137, 157, 165, 184, 196
Dog, 44, 50
Dominance, 2, 159, 161, 196
Dominants as focus of attention, 196
Douglas, Mary, 64
Dream interpretation, 69, 139
Dreaming, 139, 157, 176, 180, 187
Dress, 58
Drill, 59
Dualistic thought (see Binary distinctions)
Durkheim, Émile, 60
Education, 67, 69
Effects (as opposed to functions), 101–102, 111
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Irenäus, 52, 83, 101
“Eighteen Professions,” 56, 57
Ekman, Paul (and associates), 10, 24–27, 51–52, 98
Elementary ideas, 54n, 55, 97, 114, 178
The Elementary Structures of Kinship, 64n, 72, 98–99
Emic/etic, 76, 80–81, 91n, 131, 140
defined, 48
universals, 48–49
Emotion(s), 23–27, 39, 75, 113, 115, 116, 135, 165, 175, 199
and aesthetics, 116
basic, coarse, elementary, or primary, 26, 52, 191
as basis for exceptions to universality, 36
Empathy, 134, 135, 139–141, 159, 165, 168
Endorphins and ritual, 115
Entification, 137, 158
Environment, humans’ adjustment to, 136
Environment, of human evolutionary history, 50, 86, 100–101
Environmentalism, arch, 62
(See also Cultural determinism; Relativism, extreme cultural)
Envy, 139, 169
Equality (logic), 201
Eschatology, 69
Ethics (see Morality)
Ethnicity, 138
Ethnocentrism, 79, 107n, 138–139, 158, 163, 169, 189, 195, 198
ethical dualism of, 139
and sense of being a distinct people, 136
(See also In-group/out-group)
Ethnoscience, 82, 92
Ethnosemantics, 82, 92
(See also Componential analysis)
Ethological perspective, 129
Ethology, 78, 81, 82, 101, 144
and explanation of incest avoidance, 129
lessons drawn from, 81n
recent influence on anthropology, 83
Ethos, 171
Etic grid, 48n
Etiquette,
69, 139, 162, 167
Eugenics, 55, 62
Evolution:
accident in, 103–104
of basic color terms, 11, 13–14
compromise in, 103–104
conservatism in, 103–104
cultural, 68–69, 73n
of human species, 145
ignored in British social anthropology, 66
natural selection in, 83n, 100
of racial differences, 101n
Evolutionary biology:
basic elements of, 99–105
design and function in, 100–102
after World War II, decreased interest in, 73
Evolutionary perspective and incest avoidance, 129
Evolutionary psychology, 6, 83, 84, 115, 165, 187
Evolutionary sequence of basic color terms, 11, 13–14
Evolutionary sequences as implicational universals, 46
Evolutionary theory, 81, 85, 99–111, 117, 143, 144
conservation of energy in, 98
alternatives to, in explaining universals, 117
presumed, 110–111
recent influence on anthropology, 82
(See also Natural selection)
Evolutionary universals, 188
Evolutionists, cultural, 68–69
Exchange, 59, 138, 169, 170, 181, 182
Experiential universals, 47, 180, 192
Explanation(s):
no zero-sum game between biology and culture, 156
proximate/ultimate, 104
of religion and aesthetics, 71
of universals, 14, 44, 45, 52, 72, 80, 83, 88–117, 141, 142, 149–151, 153, 164
alternatives for, 117
formal or methodological, 116–117
Expressive culture, 153
Extrinsic universals, 49–50
Face:
recognition of individuals by, 135
word for, 78
Facial affect program, 25, 26, 98
Facial expressions (of emotion), 10, 23–27, 38, 39, 51–52, 83, 85, 101, 134, 168, 177, 190
indicating basic emotions, 26–27
masking, mimicking, and modifying, 134
as universals of content, 48
Facial recognition, ontogeny of, 112
Facultative adaptation, 103
Faculty psychology, 61n
Family, 47, 59, 69, 136, 137, 141, 165, 182, 197
male involvement in, 136
mother and children as basis of, 136
regulation of members of, 182
Family complex, 10, 32
Fear(s), 26, 134, 161, 169
childhood, 135, 179
overcoming, 135
of snakes, 135, 190
of strangers, 107n, 135
suppression of, 179
Feasting, 69, 139
Female:
attractiveness, 181
orgasm, 102
Fighting with hands, 165
Figurative language, 132, 162
Fire, 44, 50, 69, 135, 136, 164, 165, 179, 197
uses of, 95
“First Contact,” 3, 4, 52
Fisher, R. A., 62
Fitness, 100, 106–107
Fixed action patterns, 101, 146, 147
(See also Instincts)
Fodor, Jerry A., 85