Human Universals
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Folklore, 69, 139
Followers, dispositions of, 158
Food, 69, 138–139
Forgetting, 182
Formal universals, 43, 49, 50, 164
Fox, Robin, 42–43, 47, 49, 81, 118, 120, 124, 140
on how to identify the inhuman, 155
on secular social ideology of our time, vii, 154
Framework or model, universal, 158, 165, 178
defined, 47–48
Freeman, Derek, 9, 10, 16–20, 31, 38, 61
Freud, Sigmund, 32, 33, 38, 119, 120
Fridlund, Alan J., 26
Function, sociocultural and biological definitions of, 101–102
Functions, universal, 76
Funeral rites (see Treatment, of the dead)
Future, past, and present, 133, 194
Games, 43, 59, 69, 163, 165, 167, 176, 190, 195, 196
Garcia, John (and associates), 84
Gardner, Howard, 61n, 85, 150
Geertz, Clifford, 3–5, 54, 74–75, 86, 114n, 151, 156
Gender (see Division of labor; Female; Male; Sex)
Gene mutation, 104
General and particular, 134, 194
distinguishing between, 157
Generalization, 198
Generation, semantic component of, 80, 133
Generosity admired, 138
Genes plus environment in explanation of human affairs, 145–147
Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, The, 62
Genitals, explanation for sexual dimorphism of, 109n
Genotype, 100
Gestures, 23, 52, 54, 69, 134, 179
Gewertz, Deborah, 10, 21–23, 38
Gift giving, 69, 138, 170
Givens (biological), 117
Giving, 133
Goldschmidt, Walter, 66n, 76, 154, 155
Good and bad, 132, 134, 158, 161, 167, 174, 182
Goodenough, Ward H., 75, 80–81, 142
Gossip, 131, 172
Government, 48, 59, 67, 69, 138
Gradation, 134
Grammar:
universality of, 41
universals of, 131–132, 164, 173
(See also Universal grammar)
Greenberg, Joseph, 78–80, 164
Greetings, 69, 139, 173
Grief, 26, 70, 139
as response to death of close kin, 190
Group(s), 161, 165
local or territorial, 136, 186
nonlocalized, 136, 170
other than family, 176
(See also Kin groups)
Group competition, 161
Group living, 105, 111, 136, 197
Group selection, 82, 103, 123n, 144
HRAF (see Human Relations Area Files)
Habitat selection and landscape preferences, 116, 187
Hairstyles, 69, 140, 180, 188
Hallowell, A. Irving, 74–75, 155
Hamilton, W. D., 82, 105
Hand, word for, 133
Handedness, 89, 91, 94, 98, 99, 157, 181, 186
Hand-eye coordination, 172
Hands used to eat, 198
Happiness, 26, 134
Hatch, Elvin, 62, 68, 69
Hate, 161
Haugen, Einar, 31
Hempel, Carl G., 45, 151
Herskovits, Melville J., 68, 71
Hertz, Robert, 90, 92
Hierarchy:
institutionalized, 92
in language or logic, 170, 194, 201
(See also Inequality)
Historic phenomena, 71
(See also Cradle traits)
History/myth, 93, 151–153
Hockett, Charles F., 49, 140
Homicide (see Murder)
Homo sapiens, characteristics of, 94
Homosexuality, 196
Hope, 161, 182
Hopi Time, 29–31, 38, 144
Hopi verb (tense), 28, 30, 31
Hopkins, Keith, 125–127
Hospitality, 69, 139
Hostility (see Conflict)
Household, 197
(See also Family)
Human affairs, 144–146, 148, 153
Human biology, and practical affairs, 93
Human body, 90, 98–99, 178
Human condition, 53, 145
Human evolution, as anthropological specialization, 86
Human mind, 6, 32, 46, 60, 74–75, 84, 86–87, 142–145, 149, 163
complexity of, 148
as disparate collection of adaptations, 106
faculty or modular view of, 61
Geertz on, 74
as general fitness calculator, 106
Hallowell on evolution of, 73
how evolution acts on, 101
importance in human nature, 145
innate tendencies of, according to Malinowski, 68
Lévi-Strauss on, 72, 142
and mind-altering drugs, 115
and mystical states, 115
role of anthropology in studying, 150, 156
as shaper of culture, 144
as tabula rasa, 60, 85, 144, 146, 148, 154, 155
tendencies inherent in, according to Kroeber, 57–58
(See also Brain; Mental mechanisms)
Human nature, vii, 19, 53, 83n, 86–87, 145, 148, 150, 163, 198
American anthropologists’ attitude toward, 68, 156
as basis of universals, 71, 146, 148, 152
Benedict on, 65–66
Bidney on, 70–71
as capacity for culture, 146
complexity of, 1, 5, 6, 149
cultural conceptions of, 152–153
defined, 50
in defining marriage, 80
environment of evolution of, 50, 86, 100, 115, 116
functions and effects as part of, 102
Geertz on, 75
Goldschmidt on, 66n
Goodenough on, 81
implicit assumptions about, 1, 5, 151
importance of human mind in, 145
and incest avoidance, 119
malleability of, 20, 62, 66, 155
as Mead’s research problem, 14
need for discovery by comparative studies, 81, 156
racial conceptions of, 152–153
Tylor on, 55
understanding of, in social science, 81
in understanding other cultures, importance of, 154, 178
as unfinished business in social science, 142
and universals, according to Boas, 59
variousness as essence of, 74
(See also Human mind; Mental mechanisms)
Human physiology:
and marking, 98
and the use of fire and cooking, 95
Human psyche (see Human mind)
Human psychology, implicit assumptions about, 1, 5, 151
Human Relations Area Files (HRAF), 51, 70
Human similarities, anthropological reliance on, 154
Human universals (see Universals)
Humanistic anthropology, 71
Humanities and universals, 149, 153–154, 156
Hunters and gatherers as anthropological specialty, 86, 150
Hygiene, 69, 140
Iconography/realistic portraiture, 152–153
Identity (logic), 170
Identity, collective, 137
(See also Statuses)
Ideology/knowledge, 92–93, 153
Imagination, 161, 199
Implicational universals (see Universals)
Implicature, 2
Imposing meaning on the world, 99, 182
(See also Worldview)
Imprinting, 78, 84–85, 123–125, 128–129
Inbreeding, costs of, 123–124
Inbreeding avoidance mechanisms, 123–124
Incest:
in Ancient Egypt, 125–127
avoidance, 49, 112, 118–129, 137
cases of, 121, 124–125
concerns sex, not marriage, 118
functional, 125
parent-child, 119, 124,
125, 137, 176, 182
prohibitions, 124, 181
regulation, 42, 176, 181, 182, 196
royal, 119
sibling, 121, 124, 125
taboo, 49, 64n, 69, 72, 118–129, 137, 139
as cultural invention, 118
functional or sociological explanation of, 124–125
nonuniversality of, 128
Indebtedness, 165, 182, 196
Individual:
character, 135
concept of, 135
as distinct from social status, 135, 137
facial recognition of, 135
as locus of universals, 39–42, 50, 142
motivation, and explanation of incest avoidance, 123n, 129
neither wholly passive nor wholly autonomous, 134–135
as source of society, culture, and language, 39, 40
as unit of selection, 82, 103, 123n
Individual/society/culture, artificial boundaries between, 40, 43
Inequality, 2, 76, 92, 137, 159, 161, 167, 176, 182, 192, 199, 200
as a topic of interest, 152
In-group/out-group, 134, 138–139, 182
(See also Ethnocentrism)
Inheritance, 59, 69, 140, 169, 176
Inhibition (incest avoidance mechanism), 124
Innateness, 46–47, 83n, 85, 141, 180, 199
of aesthetic principles, 157
Chomsky on, 77, 155n
as defense against totalitarianism, 155n
Durkheim on, 60
of facial recognition, 112
of habitat preferences, 116
Kroeber on, 57–58
of language, 113, 164
of reciprocity, 108
of triangular awareness, 111
Inner life, privacy of, 135
Inner states, 130, 133, 175, 186
intentional altering, 136, 180
Instinct to learn, 84–85
Instincts, 62, 70–71, 77–78, 81n, 95, 101, 146, 147
Insulting, 131
Institutions, Malinowski on, 67
Intellectual neutron bomb, 56–57
Intelligence, general purpose, 85
Intention, 134, 139, 186
Interactionism, 19, 42, 58, 62–63, 73–75, 86, 88, 93, 98, 113, 117, 149
Interlacing, 135, 180
(See also String)
Internal states (see Inner states)
International phonetic alphabet, 46
Interpreting behavior, 134, 168
Intersexual selection, 103
Interspecific comparison, 111–112, 116, 117, 124, 145
(See also Animal counterparts)
Intonation units, 163
Intrasexual selection, 103
Intrinsic universals, 49–50
Invention, 95, 118
Israeli kibbutzim (communes), 35, 120–123, 127–128
Izard, Carroll E., 10, 24
Jealousy, 15, 165
(See also Male sexual jealousy; Sexual jealousy)
John Wayne effect, 25–26
Joking, 69, 131, 165, 176
Jones, Ernest, 34–35
Joy, 26
Kay, Paul, 10–14, 37–38
(See also Basic Color Terms)
Kidder, A. V., 68–69, 72, 73
Kin, close distinguished from distant, 137
Kin groups, 69, 137, 169
legally recognized, 176
Kin recognition, 112
Kin selection theory, 82–83, 105–107
Kin terms (and terminologies), 40, 46, 69, 79–80, 93–94 133, 137, 165, 167, 170, 173
translatable by reference to procreative relationships, 133
for mother and father, 133
(See also Classification)
Kinship, 59, 150, 169, 181, 198
as basis of solidarity, 108
and evolution, 105–108
explanation for universality of, 105
genealogical core to, 163
interest in, 180
and marriage, 47
sentiments, 107, 172, 190
(See also Classification; Nepotism)
Kluckhohn, Clyde, 72–73, 80, 149, 155
Knowledge, 59
ease of acquiring, 104
as opposed to ideology, 92–93
as opposed to magic, 37
Kroeber, A. L., 46, 56–58, 64, 70–74, 114, 149, 155
dismisses universals, 64
on “no-man’s land,” 57, 64, 143
on psychological reductionism, 57–58
on racial explanations, 57
and semantic components of kin terms, 48n
on innate tendencies, 57
on “X,” 58, 86, 87
La Barre, Weston, 10, 23, 96–97
Landscapes, innate preferences for, 116, 187
Language, 58, 69, 92–94, 98, 110, 130, 141, 157, 164
acquisition, 84, 144, 181
and biology, 77–78
and constant change, 33
and culture, 27, 76–77, 98
exemplifies relativism, 77
functional requirements of, 164
hereditary roots of, 62
Hopi, 27–31, 155
as locus of universals, 39–42, 142, 173, 176
to manipulate others, 130, 131
to misinform and mislead, 131
not learned, 77–78, 84, 144
not a simple reflex of real world, 131
ontogeny of, 113
prestige from proficient use of, 131
role of universals in, 150–151
thinking without, 130
universal functions of, 192
universal structure of, 181
Language Universals, 78
Lashley, Karl, 61
Laughing, 83
Laughlin, Charles D., 99, 111
Law, 59, 69, 138, 172, 176, 185, 188
Leadership, 138, 158, 165, 176
(See also Government; Oligarchy)
Learned behavior, 143, 146, 147
Learning:
critique of, 77
ease and difficulty of, 84–85
(See also Preparedness)
generalized, 84, 143
by instinct, 84–85
of language, 113
one-trial, 85
theory, 85
trial-and-error, 137
Legend, 196
[See also Myth(s)]
Lending, 133
Lenneberg, Eric, 77, 85, 113
Lever, 135, 157
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 64n, 72, 98–99, 142–143
Lexical universals, 162, 173, 200
Life force, interest in, 97
Life forms, 14, 46, 133
Linguistic domain, 75, 93
Linguistic universals, 77–80, 164, 194
examples of, 41, 46, 47
kinds of, 164
(See also Grammar; Tendencies; Universals)
Linguistics, 76–80
and anthropology, relationships between, 76–80
influence of, on anthropology, 80, 82
and ontogenetic studies, 113
popularized by Whorf, 31
(See also Relativism)
Literary art, 153, 162, 176
Localizers, 61n
(See also Brain, localization of faculties in)
Location, 133
Logic, 170, 178, 194, 201
elementary concepts of, 134, 198
of explanation, 116
Indian and Western, 54n
of sociocultural integration and development, 50
Logical extension, 94, 117
Losing temper, 165
Lowie, Robert, 57n, 63
Luck superstitions or theories, 69, 139
Lying (and watching for), 131, 161
prohibited, 178, 182
McCabe, Justine, 122, 124
Magic, 69, 70, 139
Male:
dominance, 20, 22–23, 50, 80, 91–92, 110, 137, 158, 169, 196
exclusion of females from activities, 196
and female temperaments, 10, 20–23, 86, 135, 136, 144, 172
(See also Sex differences)
involvement in family, 136
male competition, 80, 103
orgasm, 102, 115
sexual jealousy, 107, 109
violence and aggression, 110
greater than female, 137, 179, 189
Male and Female, 21, 81n
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 9, 32–38, 47, 66–68, 71, 94
on concept of needs, 67, 94
on framework for analyzing culture, 76
on institutions, 67
on universal functions, 76
includes biological universals, 49
Malleability of human nature, 20, 62, 66, 155
Malotki, Ekkehart, 10, 28–31, 38
Man and Culture, 58–59
Man and His Works, 71
Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, The, 150
Manifest universals, 47
Manipulation, 138, 158
with language, 130, 131
Margaret Mead and Samoa, 9, 16–20
condemnation of, 19n
Marking, 41, 77n, 78–79, 98, 132
Marriage, 59, 69, 105, 136, 141, 165, 166, 172, 187, 196, 197
defining, 80
hereditary roots of, 62–63
rules, 118
between siblings, 125–127
usually a part of kinship, 93
Marxism, 60, 73n
Mate selection, 105
Material culture and traits, 40, 58
Material determinants of culture, 68, 144
Materialism, 139
Maternity, equation of social and physiological, 176
Maynard Smith, J., 82, 103, 105
Mead, Margaret, 9, 10, 14–23, 31, 38, 55, 61, 65, 81, 87, 143, 144, 149, 154–155
(See also Coming of Age in Samoa)
Mealtimes, 69, 139, 200
Meaning, urge to attach to the meaningless, 194
Measure, 167, 170
Medicine, 69, 139
Melody, 140, 182
Memory, 135, 175, 180
Mental illness, 135, 185, 196
Mental organ, 113
Mental mechanisms, 39, 84–86, 98–99 106–107, 141, 144, 148, 156
for incest avoidance, 129
for language, 113
Mental structures, 98–99
Metal tools, 50
Metaphor, 28, 29, 94, 113, 132, 133, 150, 161, 167, 170, 180, 194
Metaphors We Live By, 94
Methodology, methods, 25, 89, 145n
analysis of design, 102
for distinguishing nature from culture, 144, 147, 148
exemplified by Ekman et al., 26–27
natural experiments, 101, 129
for quantifying cultural determination, 148
Metonymy, 132, 133
Mind (see Human mind)
Mind of Primitive Man, The, 55, 58
Misinforming, misleading, 131
Model, universal (see Universal framework)
Modesty concerning natural functions, 69, 139
(See also Sexual modesty)
Mood altering, 136, 180
Moral philosophy, influence of anthropology on, 154
Morality, 55, 69, 139, 159, 161, 165, 171, 174, 181
Morphemes, 41, 132, 198