The Language of Food: A Linguist Reads the Menu
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and cooling technology, 151
culinary contributions from, 3, 56, 76, 89, 117, 125, 130–31, 134, 136, 142, 146–47, 150, 157, 159, 173
in trade, 52
see also specific cultures
‘araq, 76
“arbitrariness of the sign,” 161
arbitrary relationships, 160
arrack, 2, 56–57, 59, 61, 76, 155, 188
Arranging the Meal: A History of Table Service in France (Flandrin), 24
Art of Cookery, Made Plain and Easy, The (Glasse), 46, 196
asparagus, in smell perception, 98
aspic, 3, 43, 48, 188
Audiger, Nicolas, 150, 155
Austen, Jane, 60
authenticity, marketing appeal to, 111, 114
Aux Lyonnais, 23
Aztecs, 79–80, 80
Babylon, 40, 48, 53, 122
back vowels, 161–67, 161, 163, 207
bacon, 18–19, 118, 128, 171, 184
bacteria, 117
Baghdad, 12, 38–39, 40, 42, 131, 142, 172–74, 188
Bank Exchange, 30
banquets, 24–26
ba som (sour fish), 50
Basques, 187–88
Batmanglij, Najmieh, 148–49
Bayless, Rick, 82
Bay to Breakers race, 107
beer, ale, 19–20, 56, 64–65, 68–69, 72–77
reviews of, 93–96, 99, 104
BeerAdvocate, 93, 95
Belon, Pierre, 87, 149, 206
Bernhardt, Sarah, 126
Biber, Douglas, 98
bin Yehuda, Isaac, 40
Bi-Rite Creamery, 144–45
Blanco’s Restaurant, 28–29, 29
blogs, bloggers, 99, 163, 208
Boccaccio, Giovanni, 136
bolting, bolting cloths, 119, 121, 129
Book of Sent Soví, The, 42
Book of the Wonders of India, The, 40
bouba/kiki (maluma/takete) experiment, 166–69, 168, 207
Bourdieu, Pierre, 113
Borzya the scholar, 37, 38
Bottéro, Jean, 40
“bow-wow” theory, 170
Boyle, Robert, 155
bragget, 69
bran, 118, 121, 128
brandies, 76
Braudel, Fernand, 22
bread, linguistic history of, 117–23, 120, 202
Breakfast Experiment, 163
British Museum, 118
Brown-Bakers guild, 121
Brudo, Manuel, 46, 194
Buch der weißhait, Das, 37
Burning Man, 107
Buttolph, Miss Frank E., 8
cabbage, 124, 127
California gold rush, 35, 57, 64, 181
caliscioni, 132–36, 203
recipe for, 133
calisson d’Aix, 135–36
Cambodia, 50, 51, 53
candy, 131
canning, 128
Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 69, 120
Cantonese language, 55, 96–98, 180, 195
carbonation, 156–57, 167, 169
Caribbean, 59, 128, 139, 142
Carnival, 107
Carol for a Wassail Bowl, A (Foster), 67
Caruso, Enrico, 126
Cato, 124
Celts, 127
ceviche, 3, 35–36, 48
recipe for, 44–45
Chahuneau, Victor, 10, 93
Chamomile High Club, 65
champagne, 65
Chardin, Jean, 149–50
Charles II, King of England, 145
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 69, 118, 120, 133
cheese:
macaroni and, 143
in pastries, 135–36
saying (when taking photos), 169
Cheetos, 107
Chekyns upon soppes, recipe for, 175
Cheung Hing, 92
chicken, red rice wine recipe for, 52
Child, Julia, 31
Chile, culinary contributions from, 35–36, 48, 62
chile sauces, 79–80
China:
ancient languages of, 50
cooking techniques in, 183
culinary contributions from, 1–2, 3–4, 35, 49–63, 77, 90, 116, 121, 130, 148, 157, 159, 177, 182, 185, 195–96
economic dominance by, 61–63
gunpowder developed in, 151
lack of dessert in, 179–80, 183
languages of, 54–55, 97–98, 195
toasting traditions of, 65, 74
in trade, 38, 40, 54, 56–57, 61–62, 135
Chinese Mid-Autumn Festival, 188
Chinese New Year Parade, 107, 116
Chinese pot still, 56
chocolate, 167, 169
as marketed to women, 103
in mole poblano, 81–83
Christians, Christianity, 132
culinary influence of, 42–43, 45–46, 48, 67, 82, 125, 135, 185
Christmas:
carolling at, 68
feasts, 35, 88, 177
Church of the Martorana, 132
cider, 68
linguistic roots of, 66, 74–76
cis-3-hexen 1-ol, 98
citric acid, 157, 182
citrus, 43–44, 57
Civil War, U.S., 60, 139
Clash! (Markus and Conner), 116
Cliff House, 30
cocktails, 2, 57, 65, 77, 155
Cocoanut Cake, Dickinson’s recipe for, 139
coconuts, 139–41, 142, 143, 185
Cod (Kurlansky), 188
coffee, 21
cola, as term, 157
cold packs, 151
cole slaw, 124
Colquhoun, Anna, 48
Columbian exchange, 81, 83
Columbus, Christopher, 83
comfits, 171–72
comparison, language of, 112
Compleat Housewife, The: or, Accomplished Gentlewoman’s Companion (E. Smith), 26, 27
Complete System of Cookery, A (Verral), 26
computational linguistics, 93–106
computers, linguistic tools of, 4, 13–14
Confessions of an Advertising Man (Ogilvy), 115
Conner, Alana, 116
Consider the Fork (Wilson), 128
consonants, in sound symbolism, 167–68, 170
continuant sounds, 167
conventionalism, 159–60
cookbooks, 25, 26, 39, 40–41, 47, 59, 89, 120, 123, 125, 131, 132, 136, 137, 142, 146, 194
first American, 89, 147
first American Jewish, 140–41
first English language, 70, 174
world’s oldest, 40, 122, 122, 173
see also specific titles
Coriolanus (Shakespeare), 121
corned beef, 127
Cortes, Hernán, 79
cost:
drug metaphor and, 101–2
in real vs. fake substitutes, 18–20
as reflected in menu language, 5, 7–20, 21
sexual metaphor and, 100–101
and short vs. long words, 13–14
and vague vs. specific terms, 15–17
Costello, Elvis, 107
courses:
order of, 3–4, 5, 21–34, 27, 171–80
see also specific courses
Cowen, Tyler, 10
crackers, sound symbolism in names of, 163, 164, 167
craft authenticity, 111
Cratylus (Plato), 160
Croatia:
culinary contributions from, 35
toasting traditions of, 65, 70
Ctesiphon, Persia, 36–38
cuisine:
culture and, 2, 4, 6, 184
food pairing variations in, 182–83
restaurant status and, 7–20
Cuisine and Empire (Laudan), 143
Cuisinier François, Le (The French Cook) (La Varenne), 25, 42, 137–38, 146
cultural blending, foods borrowed through, 2, 4, 5, 43–45, 47–48, 79, 81–83, 88–89, 91, 130–31, 142–43, 152, 184–85, 187–89
cultural omnivorousness, 33–34, 192
cupcakes, 102, 205
custard pies, 89–90
Dalby, Andrew, 172
Datini, Francesco, 134
David, Elizabeth, 145
Davidson, Alan, 22
Dawe, Philip, 142
Day of the Dead, 116
De Agricultura (Cato), 124
Decameron (Boccaccio), 136
Della Porta, Giambattista, 154
Democracy in America (Tocqueville), 92
Desfontaines, Pierre, 141
de Sousa, Hilario, 98
dessert:
craving for, 102
etymology of term, 171, 176, 179
history of, 171–85
in music and songs, 103
pastries, 133–36, 140
sexual association of, 102–4
Thanksgiving, 88–90
dessert course, at end of meal, 3–4, 5, 21, 30, 171–78
Diana, Princess, death of, 99
Dianda’s Italian American Pastry, 130
Diccionario de la Lengua Castellana, 44
Diccionario de la Lengua Española, 36, 44
Dickens, Charles, 47
Dickinson, Emily, 139, 140
dietary restrictions:
Christian, 42, 135, 185
Jewish, 140
Muslim, 76
differentiation, language of, 112–13
dim sum, 90, 92, 116
dinde, 78, 86
dinner, as term, 70
distilling, of spirits, 56–57, 62, 65, 75–76, 75
Distinction (Bourdieu), 113
dragées, 171–72
Drake, Francis, 62
drink hael, 71
drugs:
and guilt, 102
as metaphor for foods, 94, 101–2, 110, 112, 118
Dubner, Stephen, 16
Dunlop, Fuschia, 97
durum wheat, 134–35
Dutch culinary contributions, 123–24
Dutch East Indies Company, 62–63
Earle, Steve, 107
Easter, 130
East India Company, 57
East-West cultural sharing, 2, 4, 45, 76, 81, 83
EATymology, 4
Eckert, Penny, 165
economics:
linguistics and, 4–5, 11, 101
and trade, 61–63
Economist Gets Lunch, An (Cowen), 10
Ecuador, 48
effervescence, 156–57, 167
egg tarts (daan tat), 90
Egypt, 40–41, 148, 149, 188
endosperm, 119, 121
endothermic reactions, 151, 154
England:
in Asian trade, 56–57, 59, 61–62
culinary contributions from, 25–26, 28, 48, 49, 60–61, 69, 75, 87–88, 89, 118–19, 122, 126, 136, 142, 147, 154, 156, 172, 174, 176, 182
imperialism of, 63
entrée course:
French vs. U.S. use of term, 21–25
linguistic history of, 21–34, 130, 143, 178
entrée de table, 24
entremets, 25
escabeche, 3, 36, 43–45, 48, 49, 159
linguistic evolution of, 42, 43, 44
Escoffier, Auguste, 30–31, 115, 125, 176–77
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, An (Locke), 160
Ethiopia, 79, 85
evil eye, 74
evolution:
negative differentiation in, 100
in origin of smiles, 169
of language, 170
exaggeration, 94–95
exogenous factors, 15
Fabrique de Macarons Blanchez bakery, 138
Falstaff, 66
fast food, 49
fat, 102, 176
chicken, 182, 184
feitoria, 84
fermentation, 1–2, 50, 52, 55, 62, 73, 77
Fernald, Anne, 165
Fernet Branca, 65
fireworks, 144, 151
fish:
fried, 42, 43–48, 123
Jewish recipes for, 46–48
salted, 47, 127–28
in sikbj, 40–42, 189
fish and chips, 2–3, 49, 185
culinary roots of, 36, 48
fish course, 25, 28
Fisher, MFK, 179, 184
fish sauce, fermented, 1–2, 50–54, 127, 185, 195
ketchup and, 49–50, 54–55, 57, 59–60, 63
Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 115
Flandrin, Jean-Louis, 24, 175
flavor principle, 182
Flesch-Kincaid measure of language complexity, 111
fleur de sel, 119
Florentine Codex, 80
flour:
linguistic history of, 117–23, 128–29
salt and, 117–18
flower, use of term, 119, 121
food pairing hypothesis, 182–83
food words, sound and connotation in, 159–70
Forme of Cury, 70, 123, 174
Fortune, 114
Fortune Cookie Chronicles, The (Lee), 179
fortune cookies, 4, 179–80, 185
Foster, Myles Birket, 67
4-methylpentanoic acid, 182
1493 (Mann), 63
Fourth of July, 144
France:
culinary contributions from, 21–25, 28, 30–32, 34, 42, 48, 70, 75, 78, 123, 129, 136, 137, 138, 141, 150, 155, 171, 175–79, 182
culinary status of, 7–8, 12, 20, 29, 33, 113, 118–19, 130, 143
Frances, 23–24
Frank, Andre G., 61
Freakonomics (Dubner and Levitt), 16
Freedman, Josh, 108
freezing, development of technology for, 3, 146, 151–58
French Cook, The (Le Cuisine François; La Varenne), 25, 42, 137–38, 146
French fries, 2–3, 36, 48, 49, 107
French revolution, 138
French toast, 120
frequency code, 164–66, 169–70
front vowels, 161–67, 161, 163, 207
fruit, fresh vs. cooked, 176
Fujian province, 49–54, 61–62
Fujian Red Rice Wine Chicken, recipe for, 52
Gama, Vasco da, 84