Charles Darwin

by Janet Browne

  3. Correspondence 11:266. I am grateful to Janet Bell Garber for allowing me to see her study of Darwin’s experimental work, J. B. Garber, “Charles Darwin as a Laboratory Director,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California Los Angeles, 1989.

  4. Darwin’s experimental work in these decades is discussed in Bowler 1974, Reinberger and McLaughlin 1984, J. Secord 1981 and 1985, J. Harvey 1997b, and Winther 2000. Darwin’s connection with William Tegetmeier is documented in E. Richardson 1916 and the Victorian breeding world in Ritvo 1987. From a large body of literature on experimental science see Shapin 1988, Gooding, Pinch, and Schaffer 1989, and Gayon and Zallen 1998. Darwin’s microscopes are described in Burnett 1992.

  5. Life and Letters 1:129, 130.

  6. Sprengel 1793. Darwin read this on Robert Brown’s advice in 1841; Autobiography, pp. 127, 128.

  7. Shteir 1996. See also Allen 1980. Women in science are generally discussed in Abir-Am and Outram 1987, Pycior, Slack, and Abir-Am 1996, and Kohlstedt and Longino 1997.

  8. Nevill 1919, p. 56. R. Desmond 1977 states that she kept a notable garden. For botanical women in general see Shteir 1996.

  9. John Horwood appears in the 1871 census at that address, aged forty-seven.

  10. Duthie 1988.

  11. Reinikka 1972.

  12. Orchids 79.

  13. Correspondence 10:331.

  14. Ghiselin 1969, Gillespie 1979. On natural theology see Brooke 1991.

  15. Correspondence 8:496. See also M. Roberts 1997.

  16. Correspondence 8:106.

  17. Correspondence 8:224.

  18. Correspondence 8:258.

  19. Correspondence 8:275.

  20. Autobiography, pp. 92–93.

  21. Correspondence 9:178.

  22. Correspondence 10:59.

  23. Correspondence 9:196.

  24. Correspondence 9:205.

  25. Correspondence 9:216.

  26. Hughes 1993. On the Victorian family see especially Wohl 1978, Davidoff and Hall 1987, and M. J. Peterson 1989. Chase and Levenson 2000 examine privacy.

  27. Correspondence 10:80.

  28. Correspondence 10:92.

  29. DAR 219.1:49.

  30. DAR 219.1:57.

  31. Correspondence 10:148.

  32. Correspondence 10:75.

  33. See J. Secord 2000.

  34. Athenaeum, 27 July 1861, p. 116, referring to Miller 1861.

  35. Grant 1861. See also Jesperson 1948–49. The dedicatory letter is reprinted in Correspondence 9:127–28.

  36. A. Desmond 1989, 389–97.

  37. Spencer 1904, vol. 2, p. 50.

  38. Paul 1988.

  39. Correspondence 10:438.

  40. Autobiography, pp. 108–9; see also Life and Letters, 3:193–94.

  41. A jibe first used by Huxley against Henry Bastian, L. Huxley 1900, vol. 1, p. 332.

  42. Fawcett had reviewed Origin favourably in Macmillan’s Magazine, Fawcett 1860. For Fawcett and Darwin’s correspondence on the matter see Correspondence 9:204. The quotation comes from Mill’s letter to Alexander Bain, 11 April 1860, transcribed in ibid., p. 205n3. See also the discussion of Mill in the preface of Hull 1973.

  43. Mill 1862, vol. 2, p. 18n.

  44. Stephen 1924, p. 75. See also Goldman 1989.

  45. McKenzie 1981, T. Porter 1986 and 1995, Kruger et al. 1987, and Power 1996.

  46. See particularly Schweber 1980, Schabas 1990, Mirowski 1994, and the essays in Cohen 1994, especially Limoges 1994 and Bowler 1995.

  47. Discussed generally in Barnes and Shapin 1979, R. Young 1985, Cohen 1994, and Golinski 1998. These social movements swiftly inter-meshed with the competitive ethos in business and economic concerns; see for example Hofstadter 1945, Wyllie 1959, Gasman 1971, and G. Jones 1980 on social Darwinism.

  48. Marx to Engels, 18 June 1862. The translation is taken from Marx 1985, p. 381, and reads slightly differently from some other sources. For Marx’s views on Darwin see Pancaldi 1994.

  49. Marx 1985, pp. 234, 246.

  50. Marx 1985, p. 543.

  51. Stevenson 1932, p. 95. On Tennyson in general see Martin 1980. See also Irvine 1959, Henkin 1963, Wolff 1977, P. Morton 1984, and Levine 1988 for the impact of scientific imagery on creative literature.

  52. Stevenson 1932, p. 96.

  53. Tennyson In Memoriam 1860, given in Stevenson 1932, p. 98.

  54. Stevenson 1932, p. 107.

  55. Curle 1937.

  56. Stevenson 1932, p. 180–81n.

  57. Quoted from Stebbins 1988, p. 159.

  58. The remarks occur in the fourth and fifth essays, Cornhill Magazine 1 (1860):441–47, 598–607.

  59. Haight 1954–78, vol. 3, p. 214.

  60. Especially Beer 1985, Shuttleworth 1984. See also Paradis and Postlewait 1981.

  61. Müller 1864, p. 357.

  62. Müller 1901, vol. 2, pp. 11, 17. Language and evolutionary ideas are examined in Beer 1989, Harris 1996, and in regard to Schleicher, Alter 1999. General remarks are in Burke and Porter 1987.

  63. Correspondence 10:505.

  64. DAR 219.1:64.

  65. Uglow 1993, pp. 560–61.

  66. Walls 1995, pp. 121, 194, 275.

  67. M. Conway 1904, vol. 1, pp. 249–50.

  68. Finney 1993, pp. 98–99, 169n55.

  69. Sheets-Pyenson 1988 has much on McCoy and Dawson; see especially pp. 30–31 for anti-Darwinian feeling. MacLeod 1982b deals with geographical factors in the structure of science.

  70. Fulford 1968, p. 99. See also Life and Letters 3:32, where Lyell reported to Darwin in 1865 that he had “an animated conversation on Darwinism with the Princess Royal.”

  71. Bromley Record, 1 February 1861, p. 12.I thank Randal Keynes for making this available.

  72. Orchids 283–84.

  73. Correspondence 9:309.

  74. Correspondence 9:279.

  75. Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 7 (1862–63):xv.

  76. DAR 112(B):100.

  77. Literary Churchman, 16 July 1862.

  78. Kingsley 1874, p. xxvii, quoted from Correspondence 10:634.

  79. Gruber and Thackray 1992, p. 17.

  80. DAR 219.1:66.

  81. Correspondence 10:537.

  82. DAR 219.1:9.

  83. Correspondence 10:641.

  84. Correspondence 10:219.

  CHAPTER 6: BATTLE OF THE BOOKS

  1. Wallace 1905, vol. 1, p. 384. The birds of paradise are in Scherren 1905, p. 134.

  2. Wallace 1905, vol. 1, p. 385.

  3. Correspondence 10:217.

  4. Wallace’s copy of the Origin of Species 1859 is in the Keynes Collection, Cambridge University Library. Beddall 1988b recounts its history and transcribes Wallace’s annotations.

  5. Wallace 1905, vol. 2, p. 1.

  6. Wallace 1905, vol. 1, p. 417.

  7. Camerini 1994.

  8. From A. R. Wallace, 4 December [1869], DAR 106/7 (ser. 2):88–89. Wallace often expressed his views on their relationship, for example in Wallace 1903.

  9. Darwin’s post-Origin experimental years are rarely examined by historians. See, however, Vorzimmer 1963 and 1972, Olby 1963, Geison 1969, Rheinberger and McLoughlin 1984, Bartley 1992, and J. Secord 1985. On general topics in plant experimentation see H. Roberts 1929 and Olby 1985.

  10. Discussed in Stauffer 1975, pp. 33–34.

  11. Variation is analysed in Ghiselin 1969, pp. 160–86.

  12. Correspondence 8:230.

  13. Variation 2:5–10, 13–15, 22 passim.

  14. On social insects and evolutionary theory, see R. Richards 1981, Prete 1990, and J. Clark 1997.

  15. Correspondence 10:387–88.

  16. Correspondence 10:193.

  17. DAR 112(B):220.

  18. Variation 1:137, 213 (1875 ed.).

  19. Correspondence 11:154.

  20. Correspondence 12:337.

  21. Keynes 1943, p. 35.

  22. DAR 219.1:56.

  23. Pritchard 1896, p. 60. See als
o Moore 1977 on the education of Darwin’s sons.

  24. DAR 219.1:69.

  25. F. Darwin 1920, pp. 125–26.

  26. Emma Darwin 2:164.

  27. Correspondence 10:505.

  28. Correspondence 10:487.

  29. DAR 117:8.

  30. Correspondence 10:355.

  31. Correspondence 10:596.

  32. Correspondence 10:625.

  33. Correspondence 10:300.

  34. Journal of Horticulture 4 (1863):93. I thank Perry O’Donovan for this information. See Correspondence 10:114–15 and Appendix V, Correspondence 11:729–40.

  35. Athenaeum, March 1863, p. 417; 25 April 1863, pp. 554–55. Quoted from Barrett 1977, vol. 2, p. 78. Also reprinted in Appendix VII, Correspondence 11:754–68.

  36. Correspondence 11:278.

  37. Correspondence 11:393.

  38. Correspondence 9:163.

  39. Correspondence 10:104.

  40. Correspondence 12:47–48.

  41. Down House MS, Classified Account Books.

  42. Correspondence 10:331.

  43. Correspondence 11:333.

  44. Correspondence 12:318–19. See also Brogan 1975.

  45. Calendar 4467, properly dated 19 April 1865, and Calendar, 16 April 1866. Gray Herbarium, Harvard University.

  46. Bowler 1983 and 1988.

  47. Quoted from Lurie 1960, p. 310. See also pp. 312–13.

  48. Moore 1991. See also Peckham 1959 and Bowler 1985.

  49. Correspondence 8:299.

  50. C. Lyell 1863, p. xi. He had already used the same expression, although with a slightly different twist, in Elements of Geology, 1851, p. 17. For the rise of “human antiquity” as a category of thought see Grayson 1983, Reader 1988, Bowler 1986, and Van Riper 1993.

  51. Compare the first edition of Figuier, published in 1863 and illustrated by Eduard Riou, and the second edition, published 1867. Discussed in Moser 1998, especially plates 5.7 and 5.9. See also Rudwick 1976 and 1989.

  52. R. Owen to J. Murray, 21 [no month] 1866, John Murray Archives.

  53. Correspondence 11:181, 173.

  54. Correspondence 11:173–74. Darwin refers to a letter to Lyell, 4 February, in which he says, “I have just received the great book.—Very sincere thanks for it.… I have turned over pages on species & am very much pleased to see you hit on many of the points which seem to me most important & not generally touched on by others. I have read last chapt. with very great interest.” Ibid., p. 114.

  55. Correspondence 11:223.

  56. Correspondence 11:217–18.

  57. Bynum 1984, Wilson 1996.

  58. Correspondence 10:611.

  59. L. Huxley 1900, vol. 1, p. 264n, and Correspondence 11:176–77.

  60. T. H. Huxley 1863, pp. 109, 111.

  61. Lyell quoted from Bibby 1959, p. 92. Falconer quoted from Correspondence 11:179.

  62. Denison 1865 and Pattison 1863, p. 17.

  63. Correspondence 11:148.

  64. Correspondence 11:177.

  65. Public Opinion, 2 May 1863, pp. 497–98, also issued separately as a pamphlet. What is probably Darwin’s copy is in DAR 221.4:143. Reprinted in Appendix VIII, Correspondence 11:769–75.

  66. The attribution to George Pycroft is discussed in Correspondence 10:770.

  67. See the memoir of Bates in Clodd 1892.

  68. Correspondence 10:54–55.

  69. On Romanes, see Marchant 1916, vol. 2, pp. 36–38. For Huxley, see Wallace 1905, vol. 1, p. 36.

  70. Raby 2001, p. 167.

  71. On mimicry, see especially Blaisdell 1982. Darwin’s review is reprinted in Collected Papers 2:87–92.

  72. Bates 1863, p. 261.

  73. Correspondence 11:326.

  74. L. Darwin 1929, p. 121.

  75. Correspondence 10:417, 515.

  76. Correspondence 11:595–96, 603–4, 607–8. On Goodsir, see Jacyna 1983. On Busk, see Cook 1997.

  77. Correspondence 11:438.

  78. Colp 1977, p. 205n55, gives Lane’s final address as Harley Street, the medical centre of London.

  79. Erasmus Darwin to Fanny Wedgwood, 11 October 1863, Wedgwood/Mosely archive, Wedgwood Archive Collection, Keele University.

  80. Correspondence 11:423, 438.

  81. DAR 112(A):79–82.

  82. Correspondence 11:620. The Darwins stayed in Villa Nuova, Malvern Wells.

  83. Correspondence 11:640.

  84. Correspondence 11:644–45, 646.

  CHAPTER 7: INVALID

  1. Emma Darwin’s diary, DAR 242.

  2. Medical notes supplied by Darwin to Dr. John Chapman, 16 May 1865, University of Virginia Library, transcribed in Colp 1977, p. 83. By “rocking” Darwin means the motion of horse-drawn carriages and railway trains.

  3. Browne 1998. Colp 1977 reviews the extensive literature, updated in Colp 1998. Some of the differing diagnoses can be found in Kempf 1918, Hubble 1953, Good 1954, Adler 1959, Foster 1965, Winslow 1971, Pickering 1974, Bowlby 1990, F. Smith 1990 and 1992, and D. Young 1997.

  4. Bernstein 1984. Colp 1998 reopens the case for Chagas’ disease.

  5. Darwin to Chapman, 7 June 1865, University of Virginia Library.

  6. DAR 112(B):93.

  7. “A visit to Darwin’s village,” Evening News, 12 February 1909, p. 4.

  8. Most of these remarks are drawn from Francis Darwin’s manuscript recollections, DAR 140(3).

  9. Life and Letters 1:122.

  10. DAR 140(3):15.

  11. Correspondence 11:501.

  12. Correspondence 12:37, 57.

  13. L. Darwin 1929, p. 120.

  14. The possibility of nervous disorder is presented most notably by Pickering 1974 and Colp 1977. See also Bowlby 1990 and Desmond and Moore 1990.

  15. Discussed in Browne 1998. See also Bynum 1997.

  16. DAR 112(B):51. See also Graham 1984 and Bailin 1994.

  17. DAR 112(B):35, 49. See also Ehrenreich and English 1973.

  18. Emma Darwin 2:331. The social politics of illness are analysed in Sicherman 1977, Haley 1978, and Bailin 1994. For the “nervous” patient, see Bynum 1982 and 1985, Berrios 1985, and Oppenheim 1991. Hysteria is analysed as a category in Micale 1995 and Gilman et al. 1993. Model case studies are in Bynum and Neve 1985 and Wiltshire 1992.

  19. Correspondence 11:602–3.

  20. On the medical profession and its relationships with patients see especially M. J. Peterson 1978, R. Porter 1985, and Digby 1994.

  21. Correspondence 11:690.

  22. Correspondence 11:695.

  23. To W. E. Darwin, 22 June 1866, DAR 185. I thank Duncan Porter for these references.

  24. Correspondence 11:506. On contemporary imagery of women as sickroom nurses, see Bailin 1994 and Winter 1995. Women acting as amanuenses and the way letters can generate power structures are discussed in Goldsmith 1989. On women’s role more generally see Vicinus 1972 and Kohlstedt and Longino 1997. On women’s biographies see Wagner-Martin 1994.

  25. Correspondence 11:616.

  26. DAR 219.1:80.

  27. Correspondence 11:689.

  28. DAR 219.9:15.

  29. Correspondence 12:29.

  30. Correspondence 12:311, 312.

  31. DAR 219.1:78.

  32. Correspondence 12:387.

  33. Correspondence 12:212.

  34. Correspondence 12:31.

  35. Bartholomew 1976 and MacLeod 1971. See also Life and Letters 3:27–28, Correspondence 11:662, and Royal Society Minutes of Council 3(1858–69):197. A full account is given in Appendix IV, Correspondence 12:509–27. A general assessment of the Royal Society in this period is in M. B. Hall 1984.

  36. Correspondence 11:662.

  37. Correspondence 11:669.

  38. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 13(1863–64):508.

  39. Bartholomew 1976, pp. 215–17.

  40. Correspondence 12:423.

  41. Emma Darwin 2:204.

  42. Jenson 1970, p. 64. On the X Club generally, see MacLeod 1969, Barton 1990 and 199
8, and A. Desmond 2001.

  43. Jenson 1970, p. 63.

  44. MacLeod 1969 and Roos 1981. See also the centenary edition, Nature 1989.

  45. Correspondence 12:18.

  46. Correspondence 12:384. Wallace was awarded the Royal (Gold) Medal in 1868.

  47. I thank Gudrun Richardson of the Royal Society for checking nominations between 1860 and 1893.

  48. MacLeod 1969, p. 312.

  49. Snell and Ell 2001.

  50. Lubbock’s role is discussed in Hutchinson 1914, vol. 1, pp. 57–58. See also Brock and MacLeod 1976.

  51. Correspondence 12:35. See Colenso 1862–79. Colenso is discussed by Hinchcliff 1964 and Rowse 1989.

  52. Bradford 1996 and Jenkins 1996. Disraeli was caricatured in Punch, 10 December 1864, 239. The quotation comes from the caption.

  53. Lorimer 1978, Stepan 1982, and E. Richards 1989. More generally see Stocking 1987.

  54. On racial anthropology in general, see Gillespie 1977, E. Richards 1989, Edwards 1992, J. Harvey 1993, and Alter 1999.

  55. Lorimer 1978.

  56. Stepan 1982 and Lorimer 1978. See also Vogt 1864.

  57. Wallace 1864. See Correspondence 12:204. Darwin’s letter to Wallace on the subject is in ibid., 216–17.

  58. Wallace 1864, p. clxv. See also R. Smith 1972 and Durant 1979.

  59. Lubbock 1865, Van Riper 1993, and Bynum 1984.

  60. Leopold 1980.

  61. Life and Letters 3:52–53. Darwin criticised his son William for easy assumptions about the issue; ibid., p. 53. The Eyre affair is examined in Semmel 1962.

  62. L. Huxley 1900, vol. 1, p. 278.

  63. From Asa Gray, 15 May 1865, DAR 165.

  64. To Asa Gray, 15 August [1865], Gray Herbarium, Harvard University.

  65. From a number of studies on the translation of science see especially Glick 1988a and, more recently, Rupke 2000. The development of specialised language and jargon is touched on in Burke and Porter 1995.

  66. Altick 1957, Ellegard 1957, and Eco 1979.

  67. Life and Letters 3:88.

  68. Scudo and Acanfora 1985, Vucinich 1988, and Todes 1989.

  69. Vucinich 1988.

  70. Correspondence 12:265–68 and Junker and Richmond 1996, p. 19.

  71. Haeckel 1866. Haeckel’s work and Darwinism in Germany are discussed in Gasman 1971, Kelly 1981, Corsi and Weindling 1985, pp. 685–98, and Montgomery 1988. More generally see Nyhart 1995.

  72. Müller 1864, quoted from the English translation 1869, p. 114.