The Cigarette Century

by Allan Brandt

  24 “DRAFT: 1982 Analysis: Tobacco Sales in Developing Countries,” 1982, Bates No. 2025038090/8097, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vpb81f00.

  25 Ibid.; Rene Scull, “Bright Future Predicted for Asia Pacific,” World Tobacco 94 (1986): 35; and Stan Sesser, “Opium War Redux,” New Yorker, September 13, 1993, 77-89.

  26 Jonathan Watts, “China Promises to Dash Hopes of Tobacco Industry Giants,” Lancet 363, no. 9402 (2004): 50; D. Yach, “Injecting Greater Urgency into Global Tobacco Control,” Tobacco Control 14, no. 3 (2005): 145-148; and Wu Zhong, “China: A Smoker’s Paradise.” Asia Times, July 11, 2006.

  27 Glenn Frankel and Steven Mufson, “Vast China Market Key to Smoking Disputes,” Washington Post, November 20, 1996; Bo-Qi Liu et al.; A. D. Lopez, “Counting the Dead in China: Measuring Tobacco’s Impact in the Developing World,” British Medical Journal 317, no. 7170 (1998): 1399-1400; and Shi-Ru Niu et al., “Emerging Tobacco Hazards in China: 2. Early Mortality Results from a Prospective Study,” British Medical Journal 317, no. 7170 (1998): 1423-1424.

  28 Headden.

  29 Derek Yach and Douglas Bettcher, “Globalisation of Tobacco Industry Influence and New Global Responses,” Tobacco Control 9, no. 2 (2000): 207.

  30 Mike Levin, “U.S. Tobacco Firms Push Eagerly into Asian Market,” Marketing News, January 21, 1991, 2.

  31 Burson-Marsteller, “Position Paper, First Draft: The Effect of Product Liability Litigation on Tobacco Industry Stocks,” 1988, Bates No. 2021269356/9374, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/mih48d00. For more on the tobacco industry’s interest in international markets, see Levin; Sesser; and Philip Shenon, “Asia’s Having One Huge Nicotine Fit,” New York Times, May 15, 1994.

  32 William Ecenbarger, “We Are the World: The Americanization of Everywhere,” Plain Dealer, August 15, 1993.

  33 Ibid.

  34 Glenn Frankel, “U.S. Aided Cigarette Firms in Conquests Across Asia,” Washington Post, November 17, 1996.

  35 P. Jha et al.; “U.S. Mortality Public Use Data Tapes 1960-1999,” U.S. Mortality Volumes 1930-1959 (National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2002).

  36 Kaufman and Nichter.

  37 Ibid.

  38 “Women’s Cigarette Market,” Bates No. 500734972/5015; G. N. Connolly, “Worldwide Expansion of Transnational Tobacco Industry,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 12 (1992): 29-35; Katherine Deland, Karen Lewis, and Allyn L. Taylor, “Developing a Public Policy Response to the Tobacco Industry’s Targeting of Women and Girls: The Role of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control,” Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 55, no. 5 (2000): 316-320; Virginia Ernster et al., “Women and Tobacco: Moving from Policy to Action,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78, no. 7 (2000): 891-901; Kaufman and Nichter; R. Richmond, “You’ve Come a Long Way Baby: Women and the Tobacco Epidemic,” Addiction 98, no. 5 (2003): 553-557.

  39 Headden.

  40 World Health Organization, Tobacco and the Rights of the Child (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001).

  41 Ron Scherer and Howard LaFranchi, “Taking Tobacco out of Mouth of Babes,” Christian Science Monitor, March 17, 1999; Connolly; Ernest Beck and Gordon Fairclough, “BAT Aims to Open Stores with Luckies-Logo Theme—Hip Urban Outlets Would Carry ‘American Original’ Items Including Clothing, Candy,” Wall Street Journal, October 27, 2000; Sesser; World Conference on Tobacco OR Health, “WHO Chief Warns Tough Times Ahead for Global Tobacco Control Treaty,” press release, April 8, 2003; United Nations General Assembly, “Convention on the Rights of the Child,” September 2, 1990; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General (Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2006).

  42 Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Enforcing Reagan’s New Trade Policy,” New York Times, November 24, 1985; Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Section 301 Is Polished as U.S. Trade Weapon,” New York Times, August 27, 1985; Louis Uchitelle, “A Crowbar for Carla Hills,” New York Times, June 10, 1990; Peter Schmeisser, “Pushing Cigarettes Overseas,” New York Times Magazine, July 10, 1988; “U.S. Delays Thai Action,” New York Times, May 26, 1990; Sesser; Glenn Frankel, “U.S. Aided Cigarette Firms in Conquests Across Asia”; and Robert Weissman, International Trade Agreements and Tobacco Control: Threats to Public Health and the Case for Excluding Tobacco from Trade Agreements (Washington, DC: Essential Action, 2003).

  43 Frankel.

  44 Philip J. Hilts, “Health Dept. Softens Stance on Cigarette Exports,” New York Times, May 18, 1990; Philip J. Hilts, “Thailand’s Cigarette Ban Upset,” New York Times, October 4, 1990; Daniel R. Seely, “Death by the Pack for the Third World,” New York Times, October 30, 1990; Paul Taylor, “GATT: U.S. and Thailand in Brief Harmony Amid Discord,” Financial Times, December 6, 1990; Chaloupka and Laixuthai; Sesser; John Bloom, Public Health, International Trade, and the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (Washington, DC: American Cancer Society and Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, 2001); and Joy de Beyer and Linda Waverley Brigden, Tobacco Control Policy: Strategies, Successes and Setbacks (Geneva: World Bank, 2003).

  45 Frankel; Chaloupka and Laixuthai; Anna White and Robert Weissman, “The Hand-off to Big Tobacco: IMF Support for Privatization of State-Owned Tobacco Enterprises,” Multinational Monitor 23, no. 9 (2002).

  46 Frankel.

  47 Ibid.

  48 Chaloupka and Laixuthai.

  49 Frankel.

  50 “Thailand Lifts Cigarette Ban,” New York Times, October 10, 1990; Sesser; S. Haman, “Thailand: Victories and Defeats in the Long War,” Tobacco Control 12, no. 1 (2003): 8; Taylor; Philip J. Hilts, “Thailand’s Cigarette Ban Upset”; Chantornvong and McCargo, “Political Economy of Tobacco Control in Thailand,” Tobacco Control 10, no. 1 (2001): 48-54; and Frankel.

  51 Glenn Frankel, “Thailand Resists U.S. Brand Assault,” Washington Post, November 18, 1996.

  52 Joseph N. Eckhardt, “Balancing Interests in Free Trade and Health: How the WHO’s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control Can Withstand WTO Scrutiny,” Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 12, no. 1 (2002): 197-230; GATT, Thailand—Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes (1990).

  53 Thomas Schoenbaum, “WTO Dispute Settlement: Praise and Suggestions for Reform,” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 47 (1998): 647-658; Ira S. Shapiro, “Treating Cigarettes as an Exception to the Trade Rule,” SAIS Review 22, no. 1 (2002): 87-96; and Weissman.

  54 Thailand—Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes.

  55 Ibid.; and Bloom.

  56 Thailand—Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes; and Bloom.

  57 Thailand—Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes; Bloom; Carlos Correa, “Implementing National Public Health Policies in the Framework of WTO Agreements,” Journal of World Trade 34, no. 5 (2000): 113; and Ron Scherer, “World Cracks Down on Big Tobacco,” Christian Science Monitor, May 22, 2003.

  58 Thailand—Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes.

  59 Weissman.

  60 Schoenbaum.

  61 Correa, 94; and Schoenbaum.

  62 “Global Tobacco Trade: U.S. Policy and American Cigarettes,” Bates Nos. TI02861448-99, 1457, http://tobaccodocuments.org/nysa_ti_s4/TI02861448.html.

  63 Thailand—Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes; and A. Taylor et al., “The Impact of Trade Liberalization on Tobacco Consumption,” in Tobacco Control in Developing Countries, eds. Prabhat Jha and Frank Chaloupka (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

  64 Frankel, “Thailand Resists U.S. Brand Assault.”

  65 Ibid.

  66 Ibid.; S. Chantornvong and D. McCargo, “Political Economy of Tobacco Control in Thailand,” Tobacco Control 10, no. 1 (2001): 48-54; Haman; P.Vateesatokit, B. Hughes, and B. Ritthphakdee, “Thailand: Winning Battles, but the War�
��s Far from Over,” Tobacco Control 9, no. 2 (2000): 122-127; and Global Analysis Project, “Political Economy of Tobacco Control in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries: Lessons from Thailand and Zimbabwe,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78, no. 7 (2000): 913-919.

  67 Philip Shenon, “Asia’s Having One Huge Nicotine Fit,” New York Times, May 15, 1994.

  68 Robert Pear, “Embassy Asks Trade Caution,” New York Times, May 16, 1989; Frankel, “U.S. Aided Cigarette Firms in Conquests Across Asia.”

  69 Sesser, 85.

  70 Sesser; Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes (New York: Knopf, 1996), 714; and Headden.

  71 Frankel, “U.S. Aided Cigarette Firms in Conquests Across Asia”; and Trade and Health Issues: Dichotomy.

  72 Kluger, 713.

  73 M. E. Muggli and R. D. Hurt, “Tobacco Industry Strategies to Undermine the 8th World Conference on Tobacco or Health,” Tobacco Control 12, no. 2 (2003): 195-202.

  74 British American Tobacco, “Statement on BAT Industries’ Tobacco Interests in Developing Countries,” 1982, Bates No. 2501021383/1385, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/agx19e00.

  75 G. A. Dalley, “The World Health Organization’s Campaign on Smoking and Health: Some Thoughts on a Corporate Response” [memo to Donald S. Harris, Philip Morris], 1984, Bates No. 2023272993/2996, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xyv36e00.

  76 Monique E. Muggli et al., “The Smoke You Don’t See: Uncovering Tobacco Industry Scientific Strategies Aimed Against Environmental Tobacco Smoke Policies,” American Journal of Public Health (2001): 1419-1423; British American Tobacco, “Statement on BAT Industries’ Tobacco Interests in Developing Countries”; Jorge R. Basso, “8th World Conference on Tobacco OR Health” [letter from Jorge R. Basso Dastugue of BATCo to Sharon Boyse of BATCo], 1992, Bates No. 300504295/4298, http://www.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/batco/html/14400/14454; and Dalley.

  77 “8th World Conference on Tobacco OR Health.”

  78 Ruth Roemer, Allyn Taylor, and Jean Lariviere, “Origins of the WHO Framework Convention for Tobacco Control,” American Journal of Public Health 95, no. 6 (2005): 936-938; and International Strategy for Tobacco Control (Geneva: World Health Organization, Programme on Substance Abuse, 1996), 38.

  79 David P. Fidler, “The Future of the World Health Organization: What Role for International Law?” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 31, no. 1079 (1998); and Fidler, “International Law and Global Public Health.”

  80 Allyn Lise Taylor, “Making the World Health Organization Work: A Legal Framework for Universal Access to the Conditions for Health,” American Journal of Law and Medicine 18, no. 4 (1992): 301-346; and Michelle Forrest, “Using the Power of the World Health Organization: The International Health Regulations and the Future of International Health Law,” Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems 33 (1999-2000): 153-179.

  81 International Strategy for Tobacco Control, 38; and Christopher J. Murray and Alan D. Lopez, “Evidence-Based Health Policy—Lessons from the Global Burden of Disease Study,” Science 274, no. 5288 (1996): 740-743.

  82 Weissman, 26; also cited as the “later in time” rule in Taylor, 350; Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969; and Roemer, Taylor, and Lariviere, 936-938.

  83 Mia Malan and Rosemary Leaver, “Political Change in South Africa: New Tobacco Control and Public Health Policies,” in Tobacco Control Policy: Strategies, Successes and Setbacks, eds. Joy de Beyer and Linda Waverley (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2003), 121-153.

  84 Roddey Reid, Globalizing Tobacco Control: Anti-Smoking Campaigns in California, France, and Japan (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005); and Stephen Smith, “Global War on Smoking Uses Bay State Battle Plan,” Boston Globe, June 26, 2002. For more on state antitobacco campaigns, see H. K. Koh et al., “The First Decade of the Massachusetts Tobacco Control Program,” Public Health Reports 120, no. 5 (2005): 482-495; Stanton A. Glantz and Edith D. Balbach, Tobacco War: Inside the California Battles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); and John P. Pierce et al., “Has the California Tobacco Control Program Reduced Smoking?” JAMA 280, no. 10 (1998): 893-899.

  85 Stephen Smith, “Global War on Smoking Uses Bay State Battle Plan,” Boston Globe, June 26, 2002; and Witold Zatonski, “Democracy and Health: Tobacco Control in Poland,” in Tobacco Control Policy: Strategies, Successes and Setbacks, 97-120.

  86 Prakit Vateesatokit, “Tailoring Tobacco Control Efforts to the Country: The Example of Thailand,” in Tobacco Control Policy: Strategies, Successes and Setbacks, 154-178.

  87 F. Howell, “Smoke-Free Bars in Ireland: A Runaway Success,” in Tobacco Control 14, no. 2 (2005): 73-74.

  88 Roemer, Taylor, and Lariviere, 936-938.

  89 Gavin Yamey, “WHO in 2002: Interview with Gro Brundtland,” British Medical Journal 325 (2002): 1355-1358.

  90 Richard Smith, “The WHO: Change or Die,” British Medical Journal 310 (1995): 543-544.

  91 Ibid.; R. Horton, “WHO: The Casualties and Compromises of Renewal,” Lancet 359, no. 9317 (2002): 1605-1611; and Yamey, 1355.

  92 Henry J. Waxman, “The Future of the Global Tobacco Treaty Negotiations,” New England Journal of Medicine 346, no. 12 (2002).

  93 International Strategy for Tobacco Control.

  94 The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: A Primer (World Health Organization, 2003); Jeff Collin, Kelley Lee, and Karen Bissell, “The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: The Politics of Global Health Governance,” Third World Quarterly—Journal of Emerging Areas 23, no. 2 (2002): 265-282; David P. Fidler, World Health Organization’s Framework Convention for Tobacco Control, March 28, 2003, American Society of International Law, http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh100.htm; International Strategy for Tobacco Control; and David Satcher, “Why We Need an International Agreement on Tobacco Control,” American Journal of Public Health 91, no. 2 (2001): 191-193.

  95 Sabin Russell, “Ex-Clinton Official Rips White House on Tobacco Treaty,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 13, 2003; “U.S. Accused of Hampering Tobacco Control Talks,” Nation’s Health 32, no. 4 (2002); Alison Langley, “Anti-Tobacco Pact Gains Despite Firms’ Lobbying,” Washington Post, May 30, 2003; and Marc Kaufman, “U.S. Seeks to Alter Anti-Tobacco Treaty; ‘Reservations’ Clause Sought as Way out of Some Provisions,” Washington Post, April 30, 2003.

  96 Kaufman; Clare Kapp, “Who Chief Endorses Diluted Antitobacco Text,” Lancet 361, no. 9354 (2003): 315; and Kapp, “Tobacco-Control Treaty Language Approved Despite Objections,” Lancet 361, no. 9360 (2003): 839-840.

  97 Russell; Barry Yeoman, “Secondhand Diplomacy,” Mother Jones, March/April 2003, 15-16; and “U.S. Accused of Hampering Tobacco Control Talks.”

  98 Henry J. Waxman, Letter to President George W. Bush, August 2, 2001, accessed August 12, 2003, at http://www.house.gov/reform/min/pdfs/pdf_inves/pdf_tobacco_control_let_bush.pdf.

  99 Marc Kaufman, “Negotiator in Global Tobacco Talks Quits; Official Said to Chafe at Softer U.S. Stands,” Washington Post, August 2, 2001; Waxman; “About-Face on Tobacco Pact,” New York Times, May 24, 2003; and Marc Kaufman, “U.S. Signs Tobacco Control Treaty,” Washington Post, May 12, 2004.

  100 Mongoven, Biscoe & Duchin, Inc, “An Analysis of the International Framework Convention Process: Executive Summary—the WHO Tobacco Control Convention,” 1997, Bates No. 2074292077/2082, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/wqp87d00.

  101 Ibid., 33.

  102 Ibid., 3.

  103 Ibid., 33. See also Stacy M. Carter, “Mongoven, Biscoe & Duchin: Destroying Tobacco Control Activism from the Inside,” Tobacco Control 11, no. 2 (2002): 112-118.

  104 Committee of Experts on Tobacco Industry Documents, Tobacco Company Strategies to Undermine Tobacco Control Activities at the World Health Organization (Geneva: WHO, 2000). The WHO committee of experts comprises Thomas Zeltner, MD, director of the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health; former FDA Commissioner David A. Kessler, MD; Anke Martiny, PhD, a former member of the German Parliament; and Fazel Randera, MD, inspector
general of intelligence for South Africa and a former member of that country’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

  105 WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, Art. 2 (2003).

  106 Ibid.

  107 World Health Organization, WTO Agreements & Public Health (Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2002).

  108 Ibid.; Eckhardt; Neil Collishaw, Cynthia Callard, and Michelle Swenarchuk, “Trade Agreements and Tobacco Control: How WTO Agreements May Stand in the Way of Reducing Tobacco Use,” Development Bulletin 54 (2000): 11-14; and Shapiro.

  109 Bloom, 200; Cynthia Callard, Neil Collishaw, and Michelle Swenarchuk, An Introduction to International Trade Agreements and Their Impact on Public Measures to Reduce Tobacco Use (Ottawa: Physicians for a Smoke-Free Canada, 2001); Sinclair, 2000; and General Agreement on Trade and Services.

  110 World Health Organization, WTO Agreements & Public Health (Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2002); Eckhardt; Collishaw, Callard, Swenarchuk; and Shapiro.

  111 World Health Organization, WTO Agreements & Public Health; Derek Yach, “Tobacco Control: From Concern for the Lung to Global Political Action,” Thorax 56, no. 4 (2001): 247-248; D. Yach and D. Bettcher, “The Globalization of Public Health, I: Threats and Opportunities,” American Journal of Public Health 88, no. 5 (1998): 735-738; D. Yach and D. Bettcher, “The Globalization of Public Health, II: The Convergence of Self-Interest and Altruism,” American Journal of Public Health 88, no. 5 (1998): 738-741; and Gavin Yamey, “Why Does the World Still Need the WHO?” British Medical Journal 325, no. 7375 (2002): 1294-1298.

  112 Shapiro, 93.

  113 Ibid., 89.

  114 Derek Yach, “WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control,” Lancet 361, no. 9357 (2003): 611-612.

  115 Derek Yach, Message from Dr. Derek Yach, 2003, available from http://www.procor.org/discussion/displaymsg.asp?ref=1287&cate=ProCOR+Dialogue.

  116 “WHO Adopts Strict Tobacco Control Plan,” Hotels, July 1, 2003, 60; “World Cracks Down on Big Tobacco,” Christian Science Monitor, May 22, 2003.