A Ton of Crap
Page 10
BULGARIAN
About Bulgarian Bulgarian is a South Slavic language spoken by 9 million people today. It is the official language of the Republic of Bulgaria, though there are also Bulgarian-speaking minorities in neighboring countries such as Greece, Turkey, Macedonia, and the Ukraine. Bulgarian is believed to be the first Slavic language that was written, and the language evolved in three periods: Old Bulgarian, Middle Bulgarian, and Modern Bulgarian.
LESSON 9b
THE MIDDLE AGES
The High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, which lasted from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, was defined by urbanization, a unifying religion in Christianity, and a rise in population and military expansion. It is during this time that the Crusades, a series of wars fought between Christians and Muslims over the Holy Land occurred. From the Crusades came contact with Arab science, math, and philosophy, which had been developed from the classical works of Ancient Greek philosophers. The contributions made by the Muslim world were passed on to Europe.
LISTENING
Active Listening There is a difference between hearing and listening. Hearing is a physiological process, but listening requires work. To actively listen, one must understand, interpret, and evaluate what has just been heard. There are three elements involved in active listening: comprehending, retaining, and responding. Comprehension involves the listener discerning the sounds and determining the context. Retaining uses memory to create a meaning of the words one hears. Responding can be both verbal and nonverbal.
MEASUREMENT
The United States Custom Units There are only three countries in the world that have not adopted the metric system: Myanmar, Liberia, and the United States (though the metric system is used for scientific and medical measurements). The measurement system in the United States is based on the imperial system used in England (though England has since converted to the metric system). The system is not a base ten system.
GENETICS
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance From his findings, Mendel came up with three laws regarding inheritance. The law of dominance states that if there is a pair of genes, the one that appears in the offspring is most likely the dominant one because that is passed on more often than the recessive gene. Mendel’s principle of segregation states that an individual inherits an allele (or a unit of information) about a trait from both parents, and during the formation of the gamete, these alleles segregate from one another. Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that the factors for characteristics are distributed independently to the reproductive cells.
BULGARIAN
Old Bulgarian Old Bulgarian was also known as Old Church Slavonic (which you might recall from the lesson on Russian). It was spoken from the ninth century to the eleventh century, and it was the first written Slavic language that was used universally throughout the land. Old Bulgarian shared many qualities that other Slavic languages had; however, certain sounds were solely found in Bulgarian.
LESSON 9c
THE MIDDLE AGES
The Late Middle Ages The Late Middle Ages, which lasted from 1300 to 1500, was a time defined by climate change, famine, disease, war, and social upheaval. The Great Famine of 1315 to 1317 and the Black Death led to an incredibly large loss of life. It is during this time that the Hundred Years’ War was fought between England and France, and it is in the Late Middle Ages that the schism in the Catholic Church occurs.
LISTENING
Active Listening Barriers There are several barriers that can interrupt active listening, and they can be anything from outside distractions to one’s own emotions. Daydreaming or glazing over while a person speaks is one example of a barrier to active listening, as are interruptions and shift response. In shift response, instead of passively listening, the listener turns the conversation into one about him- or herself and no longer actively listens but focuses on the self.
MEASUREMENT
Length The units of length used every day in the United States are inch, foot, yard, and mile. In this system, 12 inches makes 1 foot, 3 feet equals 1 yard, and 1 mile is 5,280 feet. In the metric system, 1 yard measures to be 0.9144 meters and 1 inch is measured to 2.54 centimeters.
GENETICS
Inheritance Patterns There are three types of inheritance patterns: single-gene inheritance, multifactorial inheritance, and mitochondrial inheritance. These are all useful in understanding disease. In single-gene inheritance, also known as Mendelian inheritance, a single gene is mutated and then follows the predictable pattern of inheritance. In multifactorial inheritance, it is not due to a single gene but rather several genes and environmental factors. In mitochondrial inheritance, disease is transmitted by the mitochondria, organelles that are inherited only from the mother’s egg.
BULGARIAN
Middle Bulgarian From the twelfth century to the fifteenth century, the language changed dramatically. Middle Bulgarian was the official language used in the administration of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Many vowels lost their nasal quality, and consonants were harder in the West, while in the East, there was still a difference between hard and soft consonants. Also during this time, a new class of verbs developed.
LESSON 9d
THE MIDDLE AGES
The Black Death In 1347, Europe was struck by the Black Death (now known to have been the bubonic plague). It is believed that one-third to one-half of the entire population of Europe was killed by this plague. The common belief is that rats in ships arriving from Asia were infected with the disease. The disease would then move from rats to fleas, and then the fleas would bite humans, infecting them. From there, the disease would spread from human to human.
LISTENING
Informational Listening Informational listening concentrates on the ability to understand the message of someone that is speaking. Confirmation bias and the vividness effect can be barriers to informational listening. Confirmation bias involves taking particular parts of a conversation or message so that it fits your own personal beliefs or standards. The vividness effect relates to the impact of dramatic or highly graphic events and how they can affect the perception of a situation.
MEASUREMENT
Mass There have been four systems to measure mass in the United States: Tower weight, Troy weight, avoirdupois weight, and apothecaries’ weight. Today, avoirdupois is the main system used. Troy, apothecaries’, and avoirdupois are all based on the same unit of measurement, the grain. In today’s system, one grain equals 64.79891 mg, one dram equals 1.772 grams, one ounce equals 16 drams or 28.35 grams, one pound equals 16 ounces or 453.59237 grams, one hundredweight equals 100 pounds, and one ton equals 20 hundredweights.
GENETICS
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a double helix structure that carries all of the genetic information and is the hereditary material. The double helix structure is crucial in genetics. DNA can copy and replicate itself, and each strand in the double helix serves as a pattern for duplication. When cells divide, each new cell gets an exact copy of the old cell’s DNA.
BULGARIAN
Modern Bulgarian Modern Bulgarian started in the sixteenth century and borrowed many words from Greek and Turkish. The present-day written language, which was based on the vernacular language, was standardized in the nineteenth century and included Russian, German, and French words. There are no definite rules when it comes to stress in language, so the accent of each word must be learned. Unlike other Slavic languages, Bulgarian has definite articles and has dropped almost all case forms for nouns, using prepositions and positions like English.
LESSON 9e
THE MIDDLE AGES
Science of the Middle Ages Science during the Middle Ages focused on the natural world. Much of the scientific advancements were from the Islamic world, learned by Europeans as they traveled during the Crusades. One of the major fields of science Europeans learned from the Arab world was the study of astronomy. Another important field of science studied during this time was known as alchemy (or what we refer to as c
hemistry today).
LISTENING
Reflective Listening Reflective listening shows the speaker that you are listening and comprehend what is being said. The first step is to understand what you are listening to, and then the next step is to confirm that you understand by presenting the idea back to the speaker. There are several ways to show reflective listening, such as engaging in the conversation actively, empathizing with the point of view of the speaker, mirroring the speaker’s mood, and summarizing what has been said using their words.
MEASUREMENT
Volume Measurements of volume in the United States are the cubic inch, cubic foot, and cubic yard. Volume is also separated into two categories: volume of dry material and volume of liquids. Measurements of liquid volume and dry material include cups, pints, quarts, and gallons; however, the measurements are different. For example, one pint in dry volume is 550.610 mL, but one pint in liquid volume is 473.176 mL.
GENETICS
Gene Expression Gene expression is the process of converting the gene’s information into messenger RNA (mRNA) through a process called transcription, and then converting the information to a protein in a process called translation. Gene expression is responsible for interpreting the genetic code in the DNA, which gives rise to the organism’s traits or phenotype.
BULGARIAN
Dialects Even though the written language is used across the entire country, there are several variations in the spoken language. The differences in pronunciation of consonants that was found in Middle Bulgarian between the East and West still holds true today. Another one of the main differences can be found in the pronunciation of vowels, and there are even words only used in certain areas.
LESSON 9f
THE MIDDLE AGES
Inventions of the Middle Ages There were many major technological advancements made during the Middle Ages. Among the most important inventions were the use of gunpowder, vertical windmills, the mechanical clock, the printing press, eyeglasses, and improvements on water mills. Advancements were made in agriculture as well, with the introduction of the heavy plough and three-field crop rotation.
LISTENING
Tips for Being a Good Listener Here are some helpful tips for being a good listener:
Pay attention to the speaker, and do not get distracted by outside noises or disturbances.
Don’t interrupt. Let the speaker finish his or her thought before talking and finish listening before speaking. If the whole time the person is talking you’re thinking about what you are going to say, then you’re not listening.
Listen for the main ideas the speaker is trying to get across.
Make sure to ask questions and repeat what you are hearing so that you are truly understanding what is being said.
Give physical cues that you are listening: Maintain eye contact and nod your head, smile, laugh, etc. at the appropriate times.
MEASUREMENT
Temperature Temperature in the United States is measured in degrees Fahrenheit. Both Celsius and Fahrenheit use the same reference points — the boiling point and freezing point of water — to make their measurements. However, in Celsius, the freezing point is 0˚, and in Fahrenheit, 32˚. In Celsius, the boiling point is 100˚, and in Fahrenheit, 212˚. To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract the number by thirty-two and then multiply by five, and divide by nine. To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit, multiply the number by nine, divide by five, and then add thirty-two.
GENETICS
Genetic Mutations Genetic mutations are permanent changes found in the genetic sequence of an organism that alter the nucleic acids, which alter the DNA. Mutations are the main cause of diversity and can lead to evolution, but they can also lead to genetic diseases and cancers. Mutations can either be inherited by parents, or can occur during an organism’s lifetime.
BULGARIAN
Useful Bulgarian Phrases Here are some helpful phrases to use when traveling to Bulgaria:
Hello/Hi. Zdravey/Zdrasti.
Good morning. Dobro utro.
Good evening. Dobar vecher.
Yes. Da.
No. Ne.
Thank you. Blagodarya.
I do not understand. Ne razbiram.
Where is the bathroom? Kade e baniata?
How much is this? Kolko struva tova?
Can you help me? Moje li da mi
pomognete?
Do you speak English? Govorite li angliiski?
My Bulgarian is bad. Balgarskiiat mi e losh.
Goodbye. Chao.
LESSON 9 QUIZ
Which of the following occurred in the Late Middle Ages?
Climate change
Famine
Disease
All of the above
Which of the following was not invented during the Middle Ages?
Gunpowder
The mechanical clock
The printing press
Water mills
Showing the speaker that you are listening and comprehending what is being said is an example of:
Confirmation bias
Vividness effect
Reflective listening
Shift response
There are three elements involved in active listening: comprehending, retaining, and what?
Responding
Daydreaming
Interrupting
Understanding
In the metric system, what is weight measured in?
Liters
Meters
Degrees Celsius
Grams
What is 50º Celsius in Fahrenheit?
10º
122º
-10º
-122º
What does the law of dominance state?
In a pair of genes, the one that appears in the offspring is most likely the recessive one because that is passed on more often than the dominant gene.
In a pair of genes, only the dominant genes get passed on.
In a pair of genes, only the recessive genes get passed on.
In a pair of genes, the one that appears in the offspring is most likely the dominant one because that is passed on more often than the recessive gene.
What does Mendel’s principle of segregation state?
An individual inherits an allele from one parent, and during the formation of the gamete, the allele segregates from itself.
An individual inherits an allele from both parents and during the formation of the gamete, these alleles segregate from one another.
An individual inherits three alleles from both parents and during the formation of the gamete, these alleles segregate from one another.
An individual inherits five alleles from both parents and during the formation of the gamete, these alleles segregate from one another.
What was the official language used in the administration of the Second Bulgarian Empire?
Old Bulgarian
Middle Bulgarian
Modern Bulgarian
Old Slavonic
How do you say “Can you help me?” in Bulgarian?
Kade e baniata?
Kolko struva tova?
Govorite li angliiski?
Moje li da mi pomognete?
ANSWER KEY: d, d, c, a, d, b, d, b, b, d
Lesson 10
HISTORY: The Crusades
The First Crusade, The Second Crusade, The Third Crusade, The Fourth and Fifth Crusades, The Sixth and Seventh Crusades, The Eighth and Ninth Crusades
LANGUAGE ARTS: Thinking
Cognition, The Brain, Sentience, Consciousness, Imagination, Creativity
MATH: Graphs
Line Graphs, Bar Graphs, Pie Charts, Flow Charts, Organizational Charts, Pictographs
SCIENCE: The Earth’s Layers
The Crust, The Upper Mantle, The Lower Mantle, The Outer Core, The Inner Core, The Atmosphere
FOREIGN LANGUAGE: Albanian
The Origins, Influences, Dialects, The Albanian Alphabet, Grammar, Useful Albanian Phrases
LESSON 1
0A
THE CRUSADES
The First Crusade The First Crusade lasted from 1096 to 1099. It was an attempt by Western Christians to recapture Jerusalem, the Holy Land, from the Muslims. Fearing that his country would fall to the Muslims, Alexius I of Constantinople called on Pope Urban II for help. The pope urged people to volunteer and repel the invading Turks, and the armies consisted of knights and, largely, of peasants. Eventually, Jerusalem was captured and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was created.