The Caesar of Paris

by Susan Jaques

  35 Iris Moon, “Athénienne, or Washstand,” Bard Research Forum, November 2016, https://www.bgc.bard.edu/research-forum/articles/98/athnienne-or-washstand.

  36 Stammers, “The man,” 157.

  37 David Van Zanten, “Fontaine in the Burnham Library,” Art Institute of Chicago, http://www.artic.edu/sites/default/files/fontaine_burnham.pdf.

  38 Stammers, “The man,” 155.

  39 Garric, Charles Percier, 36.

  TWO: CAESAR’S FRIEND

  1 Roberts, Napoleon: A Life, 305–06.

  2 Barbara Scott, “‘Cloth of Gold and Satins Rare’: Silks Made at Lyons for Napoleon I,” Country Life 169, no. 4372 (June 4, 1981): 1559.

  3 Draper, The Arts Under Napoleon, 1.

  4 Scott, “Cloth of Gold,” 1559.

  5 Thierry Sarmant, et al., eds., Napoléon et Paris: rêves d’une capitale (Paris: Paris-Musées: Musée Carnavalet, 2015), 203.

  6 Michael Kimmelman, “In Venice, Viewers Are Becoming Voyeurs,” New York Times, July 19, 1992, http://www.nytimes.com/1992/07/19/arts/art-view-in-venice-viewers-are-becoming-voyeurs.html.

  7 Freeman, Horses of St Mark’s, 213.

  8 Giancarlo Cunial and Massimiliano Pavan, Antonio Canova, Museum and Gipsoteca (Possagno: Fondazione Canova Onlus, 2009), 77.

  9 Catherine Whistler, Venice and Drawing, 1500–1800: Theory, Practice, and Collecting (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016), 231.

  10 Rachel Spence, “Canova and the Victorious Venus, Galleria Borghese, Rome,” Financial Times, Jan. 3, 2008.

  11 Johannes Myssok, “Modern Sculpture in the Making: Antonio Canova and the plaster casts,” in Plaster casts: making, collecting, and displaying from classical antiquity to the present, ed. Rune Frederiksen and Eckhart Marchand (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2010), 133.

  12 Xavier F. Salomon, with Guido Beltramini and Mario Guderzo, Canova’s George Washington (New York: The Frick Collection 2018), 93.

  13 Janet Burnett Grossman, Looking at Greek and Roman Sculpture in Stone (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2003), 1.

  14 Hughes, Rome, 366.

  15 Elliott Davies and Emanuela Tarizzo, Canova and His Legacy (Verona, Italy: Paul Holberton Publishing, 2017), 12.

  16 Ibid., 12.

  17 Roberts, Napoleon: A Life, 349–50.

  18 Huet, “Napoleon I,” 55.

  19 Lozier, Napoleon and Paris, 13.

  20 Hugh Honour, “Canova’s Napoleon,” Apollo (Sept. 1, 1973): 180.

  21 Irene Antoni-Komar, “Zur Rezeption der Frisur a la Titus am Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts,” in Haar Tragen. Eine kulturwissenschaftliche Annaherung, ed. C. Janecke (Cologne, Germany: Böhlau Verlag, 2004), 224.

  22 Philippe Bordes, Jacques-Louis David: Empire to Exile (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2005), 37.

  23 David O’Brien, “Antonio Canova’s Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker and the Limits of Imperial Portraiture,” French History 18, no. 4 (Dec. 2004): 357.

  24 Huet, “Napoleon I,” 60.

  25 Christopher M. S. Johns, “Portrait Mythology: Antonio Canova’s Portraits of the Bonapartes,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 28, no. 1 (Autumn 1994): 122.

  26 Huet, “Napoleon I,” 58.

  27 Gerard Hubert and Guy Ledoux-Lebard, Napoleon: portraits contemporains, bustes et statues (Paris: Arthena, 1999), 63.

  28 DeLorme, Joséphine, 48.

  29 Ibid., 49.

  30 Béatrice Tupinier Barrillon, “Cupid and Psyche,” Musée du Louvre, http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/cupid-and-psyche.

  31 DeLorme, Joséphine, 49.

  32 Laurence Posselle, ed., Dominique-Vivant Denon, L’oeil de Napoleon (Paris: Editions de la Reunion des Musees Nationaux, 1999), 130.

  33 Nick Squires, “Chemical analysis shows Medici Venus was once far gaudier,” Telegraph, March 5, 2012, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/9124246/Chemical-analysis-shows-Medici-Venus-was-once-far-gaudier.html.

  34 Hugh Honour, “Canova’s Statues of Venus,” Burlington Magazine 114, no. 835 (Oct. 1972): 668.

  35 Ibid., 661.

  THREE: NAPOLEON’S EYE

  1 Germain Bazin, The Museum Age (Brussels: Desier S.A. Editions, 1967), 180.

  2 Enrico Bruschini, The Vatican Masterpieces (Florence, Italy and London: Scala, 2004), 30.

  3 Mainardi, Assuring the Empire, 159.

  4 Harlow, “A Star Shines,” 90.

  5 Ibid.

  6 Humbert, Egyptomania, 204.

  7 Marian Hochel, “Dominique-Vivant Denon (1747–1825): Napoleon’s Chief Arts Adviser,” International Napoleonic Society, http://www.napoleonicsociety.com/english/pdf/j2011hochel.pdf.

  8 Thomas W. Gaehtgens, Napoleon’s Arc de Triomphe (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1974), 52.

  9 Bazin, The Museum Age, 176.

  10 Ibid., 177.

  11 Andrew McClellan. “Musée du Louvre, Paris: Palace of the People, Art for All,” in The First Modern Museums of Art, ed. Carole Paul (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2012), 222.

  12 McClellan, Inventing the Louvre, 121.

  13 Ibid., 141.

  14 Ibid., 140.

  15 Charney, Stealing the Mystic Lamb, 95.

  16 Ibid.

  17 Barbara Musetti. “Lorenzo Bartolini and the Banca Elisiana, or the ‘Sculpture Factory,’” in Lorenzo Bartolini: Beauty and Truth in Marble, ed. Franca Falletti, Silvestra Bietoletti, and Annarita Caputo (Florence, Italy: Galleria dell’Accademia, 2011), 172.

  18 Elliott Davies and Emanuela Tarizzo, Canova and His Legacy (Verona, Italy: Paul Holberton Publishing, 2017), 74.

  19 Musetti, “Lorenzo Bartolini,” 172.

  20 Arlette Sérullaz, Gérard, Girodet, Gros: David’s Studio (Milan, Italy: 5 Continents and Paris: Musée du Louvre, 2005), 10.

  21 David O’Brien, “Antoine-Jean Gros in Italy,” Burlington Magazine 137, no. 1111 (Oct. 1995): 653.

  22 Ibid., 654.

  23 Walter Friedlaender, “Napoleon as Roi Thermaturge,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 4, no. 3/4 (April 1941–July, 1942): 140.

  24 O’Brien, “Antoine-Jean Gros in Italy,” 660.

  25 Timothy Wilson-Smith, Napoleon and His Artists (London: Constable and Company, 1996), 160.

  26 Mordechai Gichon, “Jaffa, 1799,” The Journal of the International Napoleonic Society 1, no. 2 (December 1998).

  27 Theodore K. Rabb, The Artist and the Warrior (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2011), 158.

  28 Heidrun Thate, “The Creation of French Satellite-Museums in Mainz” (paper presented at the Development of National Museums in Europe 1794–1830, International Conference, University of Amsterdam, January 31–February 2, 2008).

  29 Ellinoor Bergvelt, Napoleon’s Legacy: The Rise of National Museums in Europe (Berlin: G+H Verlag, 2009), 25.

  30 James David Draper, “The Fortunes of Two Napoleonic Sculptural Projects,” Metropolitan Museum Journal 14 (1979): 182.

  31 DeLorme, Joséphine, 177.

  32 Ibid., 178.

  33 Ernest Knapton, Empress Joséphine (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963), 154–56.

  34 Kenneth Lapatin, ed., The Berthouville Silver Treasure and Roman Luxury (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2014), 133.

  35 Hazel Smith, “Joséphine and Juliette: Neoclassical Goddesses of Paris Fashion,” Bonjour Paris, Oct. 4, 2016, https://bonjourparis.com/fashion/josephine-and-juliette-neoclassical-goddesses-of-paris-fashion/.

  36 Lapatin, Luxus, 121.

  37 E. Claire Cage, “The Sartorial Self: Neoclassical Fashion and Gender Identity in France, 1797–1804,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 42, no. 2 (Winter 2009): 204.

  38 DeLorme, Joséphine, 167.

  39 Susan P. Conner, “Napoleon’s Courtesans, Citoyennes, and Cantinieres,” Members’ Bulletin of the Napoleonic Society of America, 73 (Spring 2003): 23.

  40 Aileen Ribeiro, Clothing Art: the Visual Culture of Fashion (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2017), 246.

  41
Shelley Hales, “Men are Mars, Women are Venus: Divine Costumes in Imperial Rome,” in The Clothed Body in the Ancient World, ed. Liza Cleland, Mary Harlow, and Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (Oxford, U.K.: Oxbow, 2005), 131.

  42 Ibid., 134.

  43 Ibid., 138.

  44 Jonathan Edmondson and Alison Keith, eds., Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (Toronto and Buffalo, N.Y.: University of Toronto Press, 2008), 33.

  45 Ibid., 24.

  46 DeLorme, Joséphine, 161.

  47 Philip Mansel, Dressed to Rule (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2005), 79.

  FOUR: PARISII

  1 Basile Baudez and Nicholas Olsberg, A Civic Utopia: Architecture and the City in France, 1795–1837 (London: Drawing Matters Studio, 2016), 1.

  2 Geri Walton, “Victorian Paris Street Cries,” April 14, 2017, Geri Walton: Unique Histories from the 18th and 19th Centuries, https://www.geriwalton.com/victorian-paris-street-cries.

  3 Gaehtgens, Napoleon’s Arc de Triomphe, 11.

  4 Flavio Conti, A Profile of Ancient Rome (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2003), 192.

  5 Hughes, Rome, 65.

  6 Ibid., 65.

  7 Ibid., 67.

  8 Caroline Wazer, “The Cutthroat Politics of Public Health in Ancient Rome and What We Can Learn from It Today,” The Atlantic, April 22, 2016, https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2016/04/the-tricky-politics-of-ancient-romes-aqueducts/479298/.

  9 A. Trevor Hodge, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply (London: Duckworth, 1992), 93.

  10 H. V. Morton, The Fountains of Rome (London: The Connoisseur, Joseph, 1970), 31.

  11 Ibid., 45.

  12 Guilhem Fabre, The Pont du Gard: Water and the Roman Town (Paris: Presses du CNRS, 1992), 116.

  13 Andrew Dalby, Empire of Pleasures: Luxury and Indulgence in the Roman World (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), 237.

  14 Daniele Leoni, The Coins of Rome: Trajan (Verona, Italy: lemonetediroma, 2009), 35.

  15 Frances H. Steiner, “Building with Iron: a Napoleonic Controversy,” Technology and Culture 22, no. 4 (Oct. 1981): 710.

  16 “Pont des Arts Bridge,” Napoleon Foundation, https://www.napoleon.org/en/magazine/places/pont-des-arts-bridge/.

  17 Edmund Thomas, Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine Age (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2007), 121.

  18 Steiner, “Building with Iron,” 718.

  19 Ibid., 724.

  20 John E. Ziolkowski, Classical Influence on the Public Architecture of Washington and Paris: A Comparison of Two Capital Cities (New York: P. Lang, 1988), 59.

  21 Garric, Charles Percier, 234.

  22 Ibid., 242.

  23 Helen Borowitz, The Impact of Art on French Literature (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1985), 57.

  24 Steven Englund, Napoleon (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004), 228.

  25 Philip G. Dwyer, “Napoleon and the Foundation of the Empire,” Historical Journal 53, no. 2 (2010): 340.

  26 Alan I. Forrest and Peter H. Wilson, eds., The Bee and the Eagle: Napoleonic France and the End of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806 (Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 92.

  27 Hibbert, Napoleon’s Women, 127.

  28 Williams, Ambition and Desire, 215.

  29 Matthieu Beauhaire, Mathilde Béjanin, and Hubert Naudeix, L’Elephant de Napoleon (Arles: Honore Clair, 2014), 10.

  30 Geoffrey James Ellis, Napoleon (London and New York: Longman, 1997), 157.

  31 Paula Rapelli, Symbols of Power in Art, trans. Jay Hyams (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2011), 50.

  32 Carol Solomon Kiefer, The Empress Joséphine: Art and Royal Identity (Amherst, Mass.: Mead Art Museum, 2005), 12.

  33 Rapelli, Symbols of Power, 50.

  34 Thierry Lentz, “Napoleon and Charlemagne,” trans. E. Da Prati, Napoleon Foundation, https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/napoleon-and-charlemagne/.

  35 Martin Mutschlechner, “The double-headed eagle: the omnipresent emblem of the Habsburgs,” The World of Habsburgs, http://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/double-headed-eagle-omnipresent-emblem-habsburgs.

  36 Odile Nouvel-Kammerer, Symbols of Power: Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style (New York: Abrams, 2007), 153.

  37 Ibid., 150.

  38 Karine Huguenaud, “Star of the Legion d’Honneur,” Napoleon Foundation, May 2002, https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/objects/star-of-the-legion-dhonneur/.

  39 Napoleon Ier ou le Legend des arts (Paris: Editions de la Reunion des musees nationaux, 2015), 150.

  40 Todd Porterfield and Susan L. Siegfried, Staging Empire: Napoleon, Ingres, and David (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 30.

  41 Ibid.

  PART THREE: IMPERIUM

  ONE: CAROLUS MAGNUS

  1 “Karl schätzte die Aachener Quellen,” Route Charlemagne Aachen, http://www.route-charlemagne.eu/Charlemagne/Karl/Karl_badend_19/index.html.

  2 Ibid.

  3 Janet Nelson, “Kingship and Empire in the Carolingian World,” in Carolingian Culture: Emulation and Innovation, ed. R. McKitterick (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 69.

  4 Neil MacGregor, “The Battle for Charlemagne,” Germany: Memories of a Nation, aired on October 13, 2014, on BBC Radio 4, http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04dwbwz/episodes/downloads.

  5 Erich Stephany, Aachen Cathedral, trans. Pauline and Bernd Nutsch (Aachen, Germany: Arend und Ortmann, 1986), 3–4.

  6 Johannes Fried, Charlemagne, trans. Peter Lewis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2016), 354.

  7 Maria Fabricius Hansen, Spolia Churches of Rome: Recycling Antiquity in the Middle Ages, trans. Barbara J. Haveland (Aarhus, Netherlands: Aarhus University Press, 2015), 65.

  8 Fried, Charlemagne, 149.

  9 W. Eugene Kleinbauer, “Charlemagne’s Palace Chapel at Aachen and its Copies,” Gesta 4 (Spring 1965): 2.

  10 Beat Brenk, “Spolia from Constantine to Charlemagne: Aesthetics Versus Ideology,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 41 (1987): 107.

  11 Ibid.

  12 Ibid., 109.

  13 Herta Lepie and Georg Minkenberg, The Cathedral Treasury of Aachen, trans. Manjula Dias Hargarter (Regensburg, Germany: Schnell & Steiner, 2010), 12.

  14 David Rollason, The Power of Place (Princeton, Pa., and Oxford, U.K.: Princeton University Press, 2016), 279.

  15 Colum Hourihane, ed., The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 532.

  16 Lepie and Minkenberg, The Cathedral Treasury of Aachen, 13.

  17 Robert Folz, The Coronation of Charlemagne (London: Routledge, 1974), 146.

  18 Ibid., xi.

  19 Fried, Charlemagne, 405–06.

  20 Rollason, Power of Place, 324.

  21 Lepie and Minkenberg, The Cathedral Treasury of Aachen, 44.

  22 Ibid., 15.

  23 Ibid., 32.

  24 Lentz, “Napoleon and Charlemagne.”

  25 Annika Elisabeth Fisher, “Sensing the Divine Presence: the Ottonian Golden Altar in Aachen,” in Image and Altar, ed. Poul Grinder-Hansen, Copenhagen: National Museum Studies in Archeology and History 23 (2014): 74.

  26 Jenny H. Schaffer, “Restoring Charlemagne’s Chapel: Historical Consciousness, Material Culture, and Transforming Images of Aachen in the 1840s,” Journal of Art Historiography, no. 7 (Dec. 2012): 7.

  27 Stephany, Aachen Cathedral, 13.

  28 Lentz, “Napoleon and Charlemagne.”

  29 Philip Dwyer, “Napoleon and the Universal Monarchy,” History 95, no. 3 (July 2010): 297.

  30 Lentz, “Napoleon and Charlemagne,” 40.

  31 Robert Morrissey, Charlemagne and France: a Thousand Years of Mythology, trans. Catherine Tihanyi (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2003), 258.

  32 Fried, Charlemagne, 529.

  33 Lentz, “Napoleon and Charlemagne,” 32.

  34 Zarzeczny, Meteors, 18.


  35 Franz Kobler, Napoleon and the Jews (New York: Schocken Books, 1976), 174–75.

  36 Sylvain Cordier, Napoleon: The Imperial Household (Paris: Hazan, 2018), 326.

  37 Morrissey, Charlemagne and France, 261.

  38 Frances Parton, “Charlemagne,” Burlington Magazine 156, no. 1338 (Sept. 2014): 625.

  39 Lepie and Minkenberg, The Cathedral Treasury of Aachen, 64.

  40 Lentz, “Napoleon and Charlemagne,” 54.

  41 Frank Pohle, email message to author, June 9, 2017.

  42 “Alexander How Great?” in Ancient History and Civilisation: Confronting the Classics, Erenow, https://erenow.com/ancient/confronting-the-classics-traditions-adventures-and-innovations/5.html.

  43 Morrissey, Charlemagne and France, 259.

  44 Hibbert, Napoleon’s Women, 131.

  45 Philip Dwyer, Citizen Emperor: Napoleon in Power 1799–1815 (London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2013), 151.

  46 Lentz, “Napoleon and Charlemagne,” 55.

  TWO: CHARLEMAGNE’S HONORS

  1 MacGregor, “The Battle for Charlemagne.”

  2 Rapelli, Symbols of Power, 23.

  3 Joachim Whaley, “The Holy Roman Empire: from Charlemagne to Napoleon,” The British Museum, http://blog.britishmuseum.org/the-holy-roman-empire-from-Charlemagne-to-napoleon.

  4 Danielle Gaborit-Chopin, Regalia: les instruments du sacre des rois de France, les “Honneurs de Charlemagne” (Paris: Ministère de la culture et de la communication, Editions de la Réunion des musées nationaux, 1987), 82.

  5 Rapelli, Symbols of Power, 26.

  6 Blaise de Montesquiou-Fezensac and Danielle Gaborit-Chopin, Le Trésor de Saint-Denis. Vol. 3 (Paris: Editions A. et J. Picard, 1973), 73.

  7 Ibid., 37.

  8 Ibid.

  9 Gaborit-Chopin, Regalia, 114.

  10 Rapelli, Symbols of Power, 20.

  11 Ibid., 22.

  12 Knapton, Empress Joséphine, 239.

  13 Fried, Charlemagne, 529.

  14 Forrest and Wilson, The Bee and the Eagle, 118.

  15 Pascal-François Bertrand, “Louis XIV and Louis XV: Their Coronations and Their Tapestries, 1654 and 1722,” in Woven Gold: Tapestries of Louis XIV, ed. Charissa Bremer-David (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2015), 39.

  16 Victor Hugo, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, trans. by Isabel F. Hapgood (Digireads.com Publishing, 2017), 81–82.

  17 Blake Ehrlich, “Notre Dame: A Pageant of 800 Years,” New York Times Magazine, May 5, 1963, 234.