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53. Ken Auletta provides an engaging profile in “The Dictator Index,” New Yorker, 7 March 2011, 48–55.
54. Jeffrey Herbst and Greg Mills, “Africa’s Big Dysfunctional States: An Introductory Overview,” in Big African States, ed. Christopher Clapham, Jeffrey Herbst, and Greg Mills (Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2006), 1–15. See also Alberto Alesina and Enrico Spolaore, The Size of Nations (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).
55. In the Egyptian case, Tamir Mustafa shows that there was some latitude for the press in the 1990s, and the judiciary enjoyed surprising autonomy until the turn of the century, with litigation the most effective channel to challenge the regime (The Struggle for Constitutional Power: Law, Politics, and Economic Development in Egypt [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007]).
56. For a model of contemporary sultanism, see H. E. Chalabi and Juan J. Linz, eds., Sultanistic Regimes (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998). In my view, Qadhafy more closely resembles this model than any other perennial African ruler.
57. Lisa Anderson argues that the “devastating experience of state destruction combined with the country’s continued and growing dependence on external sources of revenues to create a pattern of persistent hostility to the notion of the state, to bureaucratic organization” (The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830–1980 [Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986], 230).
58. Dirk Vandewalle, ed., Qadhafi’s Libya, 1969–1994 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1995).
59. Jeune Afrique, 4–10 April 2010, 22–36.
60. A very critical article in Le Monde (24 October 2009) evoked furious riposte from the regime and led to instant arrest and expulsion of the journalist, reflecting its acute sensitivity to criticism.
61. I am indebted to research assistant Geraldine O’Mahoney for collecting this data.
62. For a contrary argument attributing postcolonial success to the British colonial legacy, see Matthew Lange, Lineages of Despotism and Development: British Colonialism and State Power (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
63. According to Motsamai Keyecwe Mpho, these subordinated groups are actually a majority; see “Representation of Cultural Minorities in Policy Making,” in Democracy in Botswana, ed. John Holm and Patrick Molutsi (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1989), 58–73.
64. Abdi Ismail Samatar, An African Miracle: State and Class Leadership and Colonial Legacy in Botswana Development (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1999), 96. Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way relegate Botswana (unconvincingly) to the “competitive authoritarian” category, based on the uninterrupted rule of the BDP; Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). The elections have been of undisputed integrity and fairness, the opposition has won a significant percentage of the vote, and has had a parliamentary voice. The BDP majorities are magnified by the single member district electoral system. For another positive appraisal of Botswana (and Mauritius), see Pita Ogabea Agnese and George Klay Kieh, eds., Reconstituting the State in Africa (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
65. John Stephen Morrison, “Divergence from State Failure in Africa: The Relative Success of Botswana’s Cattle Sector” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1987).
66. Michael Crowder, “Botswana and the Survival of Liberal Democracy,” in Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960–1980, ed. Prosser Gifford and William Roger Louis (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 464.
67. For detail from a trio of Mauritian scholars, see Monique Dinan, Vidula Nababsing and Hansraj Mathur, “Mauritius: Cultural Accommodation in a Diverse Island Polity,” in The Accommodation of Cultural Diversity: Case Studies, ed. Crawford Young (Houndmills, UK: Macmillan, 1999), 72–102. Electoral detail can be found in Dieter Nohlen, Michael Krennerich, and Bernhard Thibaut, eds., Elections in Africa: A Data Handbook (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 603–22. See also Larry Bowman, Mauritius: Democracy and Development in the Indian Ocean (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991).
68. Adele Smith Simmons writes that the “economic chaos that was expected to follow independence did not materialize” (Modern Mauritius: The Politics of Decolonization [Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982], 190).
69. David Leonard and Scott Straus, Africa’s Stalled Development: International Causes and Cures (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003).
70. For depressing portraits, see Robert I. Rotberg, Haiti: The Politics of Squalor (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), and Robert Fatton, Haiti’s Predatory Republic: The Unending Transition to Democracy (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002).
71. Trefon, introduction, 18.
72. International Labour Office, Employment, Incomes and Equality (Geneva: International Labour Office, 1972), was the seminal work that discovered the significance of the informal sector.
73. Aili Mari Tripp, Isabel Casamiro, Joy Kwesiga, and Alice Mungwa, African Women’s Movements: Changing Political Landscapes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
Index
Page numbers in italics indicate figures, tables
Abacha, Sani, 47, 75, 149–50, 185, 204, 392n139
Abbas, Ferhat, 308
Abdel Salam, A. H., 271
accumulation imperative: overview of, 49–50, 350–51, 357–58; colonial state and, 49; debt crisis and, 24–25, 61, 161, 357–58, 392n139, 432n52; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 156–57, 157; property rights and, 49–50; state crisis, 192; world regions comparisons and, 156–57, 157
Achebe, Chinua, 291, 292
Adebanwi, Wale, 114
Africa. See sub-Saharan Africa; specific states
Africa as concept, 4–8, 376n13
Africanism, 111, 113–14, 240–41, 275, 298–99. See also identity; pan-Africanism
African National Congress (ANC), 27–28, 113, 171, 177, 190, 201, 349, 373
African state. See state
African Union (AU): Africa as concept and, 5; constitutionalism and, 65, 372; electoral conflict management and, 221; internal wars and, 263—64, 275, 281; international sanctions and, 221, 298; military coups ban and, 209, 221; pan-Africanism and, 298; state failure and, 76
Afrique occidentale française (AOF), 90, 91, 393n9, 394n20
Afrobarometer, 127, 202, 222, 223, 306, 414n67
Afromarxism: decolonization settlement breakdown and, 403n34; democratization and, 26, 27, 264; integral state and, 22, 379n63; legitimation imperative and, 191, 353; military rule and, 148; state failure and, 170. See also Marxism-Leninism; socialism
Afropessimism, 9, 19, 26, 122, 157, 224
Ajaokuta steel mill, 133, 162, 180, 182–86, 408n61
Ajayi, J. F. Ade, 119
Ake, Claude, 46, 202, 330
Algeria: accumulation imperative and, 357; Al Qaeda and, 203; Arab identity and, 113, 327–28, 399n76; armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 13, 27, 64, 100, 104, 107–9, 112–13, 202–3, 286; border disputes and, 154, 232; civil society's reactions to state crisis and, 192; decolonization and, 5, 377n21; democratization as unsuccessful and, 27, 202–3, 220; development ranking for, 360–61, 362; electoral conflict management and, 220; indigenization measures and, 21; integral state and, 60; internal wars and, 381n90; Islamism and, 247, 287; liberalization and, 64; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 229–30; management capacity of state and, 103, 104; military coups and rule in, 19, 60, 144, 150–51, 152; Muslim Brotherhood and, 247; narcotics trafficking and, 289; national conference mechanism and, 64; nationalism and, 4–5, 110, 113, 308; nationalizations and, 21; oil and, 21, 66, 150, 356–57; parastatalization and, 63; revenue imperative and, 356; security imperative and, 155, 190; single party system and, 152; socialism and, 150–51; sovereignty and, 95; state failure and, 162; term limits and, 365. See also specific groups and organizations
Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO), 96, 394n21
Al Qaeda, 203, 247, 263–65, 267, 272, 281, 288
Amin, Idi
, 22, 80–81, 151, 278, 389n100, 407n49
Amin, Samir, 22
Amselle, Jean-Loup, 315
Anderson, Benedict, 318
Andreski, Stanislav, 24
Angola: accumulation imperative and, 357; Afromarxism and, 379n63, 403n34; armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 102–3, 107, 235, 286; authoritarianism and, 280–81; decolonization and, 23; decolonization as blocked and, 102–3; development ranking for, 360–61, 364; ethnicity and, 246; ethnonationalism and, 322; foreign aid and, 197, 235, 245–46, 280–81, 349; human rights abuses and, 280; internal wars and, 23, 30, 234–36, 246, 280–81, 381n90; international system a, 281; Marxism-Leninism and, 60–61, 160; monarchy’s disappearance and, 127–28; natural resources and, 66, 280, 281, 356–57, 364; revenue imperative and, 356; security imperative and, 349; state failure and, 234–36, 234–38
Anya-nya, 20–21, 242–43, 269–70, 274
Apter, David, 16, 17, 128, 376n13
Arabs and Arab states: Africanism and, 240–41, 275; Africanism versus, 240–41; Arab spring and, 153, 194, 336, 354; autocratic rule and, 194, 410n3; development ranking for, 360–61, 362, 432n55; ethnonationalism and, 309; hegemony imperative and, 347–48; identity and, 113, 240–41, 270, 275, 296–97, 327–28, 399n76, 427n87; integral state, 160–61; internal wars and, 240–41, 270, 275; liberalization and, 66; religious ideology and, 309; security services and, 46, 153, 176, 410n3; socialism and, 148; state crisis avoidance and, 165. See also specific states
Arab Socialist Union, 58, 152
armed liberation struggles: decolonization as blocked and, 12–13, 27, 59, 64, 100, 102–4, 107–10, 286; ethnicity and, 113; narcotics trafficking and, 159; race and, 113–14; social class and, 113–14, 158–59; white minority rule and, 107. See also internal wars (civil wars); militias
army rule (military rule). See military rule (army rule)
Arusha Declaration in 1967, 22, 56, 160
Austin, Dennis, 17
authoritarianism: colonial legacy and, 337–38, 344; development and, 217–18, 363; law and, 44; pathways to independence and, 28; patrimonialism and, 64–65; semidemocratization and, 28–29, 65, 70–71, 221; single party system and, 17; state and, 54–55, 64–65; state as actor in context of civil society and, 51
autocratic rule: autonomy imperative and, 154; blocked decolonization and, 101–3, 396nn40–41, 396n43; colonial state and, 6; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 136–37; liberalization and, 63–64; security services and, 410n3; single party system and, 136–37, 402n15; Spain and, 101, 396nn40. See also patrimonialism
autonomy imperative: overview of, 45–46, 51, 73, 351–53, 385n34; civil society and, 73; colonial state and, 51; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 153–54; economics and, 352–53; foreign aid and, 190; indigenization and, 189–90; legislatures and, 71; SAPs and, 352; single party system and, 154; state crisis, 189–90
Babangida, Ibrahim, 150, 204, 353
Badie, Bertrand, 7, 50, 382n2
Badinter, Robert, 300–301, 423n16 Bamileke, 231, 321, 325, 426n76
Banyema, Wyinnma, 327
Baregu, Mwesiga, 196
Barkan, Joel D., 71
Barotseland, 117, 127, 129, 301
Bashir, Omar al, 39, 270–72, 384n22
Bassa, 231
Bates, Robert H., 156, 188, 189, 191–92, 355, 428n1
Bayart, Jean-François, 55–56, 68, 303, 321
Bazin, Jean, 329
Beck, Linda, 222
Beckett, Paul A., 196
Beisinger, Mark, 82
Belgian Congo (now Congo-Kinshasa). See Congo-Kinshasa (formerly Belgian Congo)
Belgium: bula matari metaphor and, 100, 123, 337; cold war context for decolonization and, 118; decolonization and, 11, 18, 123; hegemony imperative and, 153; institutional frames and, 115, 116, 128; integral state and, 56–57; legal status in context of decolonization and, 106; management capacity of state and, 104–5, 397nn48–49; pathways to independence and, 99–101, 395nn33–34, 395n34, 395n36, 396n37, 396n39; security imperative and, 155; territoriality and, 92, 393n11; timetables for decolonization and, 96; universal suffrage and, 93
Bella, Ben, 67, 144
Ben Ali, Zine el Abidine, 348, 359, 363
Benin: Afromarxism and, 379n63; civil society coup in, 27, 64, 192; constitutionalism and, 27; democratization and, 27, 29, 145, 336, 381n88; development ranking for, 360–61; ethnicity and, 143–46; hegemony imperative and, 347; internal wars and, 124, 150; liberalization and, 64; Marxism-Leninism and, 60–61, 148; military intervention and rule in, 19, 143–46, 145, 148; multiple party system and, 143–44; national conference mechanism and, 199; regime structure and, 77; single party system and, 137, 209
Berg Report in 1981, 24, 61
Biafra, 19, 20, 238–40, 245, 246. See also Nigeria
“big man” tradition, 24, 68, 79, 391n132
Billig, Michael, 311
Birmingham, David, 280
Birnbaum, Pierre, 50
Biya, Paul, 28, 176, 202, 207
black identity, 112, 113, 147, 183, 241, 275, 292, 297
Bodin, Jean, 37–38
Bokassa, Jean-Bedel, 80–81, 151
Bongo, Albert-Bernard (Ondimba, Omar Bongo), 28, 144, 176, 199, 207, 348, 366 Boone, Catherine, 73
border disputes: autonomy imperative and, 154; internal wars and, 30, 232–34, 246, 262–63, 283, 288; security imperative and, 232, 348. See also interstate conflicts
Botswana: colonial state and, 105, 370; cultural pluralism and, 219; democratization and, 3, 124, 195; development ranking for, 218, 358, 360–61, 361–62, 366; ethnicity and, 310; ethnonationalism and, 309; independence for, 3; institutional frames and, 117–18, 366–69, 381n88, 432n64; integral state failure and, 58; leadership and, 369; liberal market model and, 29, 55; patrimonialism as lacking in, 71; regime structure and, 77; state crisis avoidance and, 165
Botswana Democratic Party (BDP), 367, 369
Boulaga, F. Ebussi, 194
Boumedienne, Houari, 60, 150
Bourguiba, Habib, 4–5, 12, 79, 114, 258, 309, 363
Brass, Paul, 341–42
Bratton, Michael, 68, 198
British Commonwealth. See Great Britain
Bruton, Bronwyn, 267
Buganda, 94, 117, 127–29, 131, 243, 278, 301, 315, 325, 331
Burkina Faso: democratic norms and, 196; democratization and, 145, 151; development ranking for, 360–61; internal wars and, 281; military coups and rule in, 19, 144, 145–46, 151; multiple party system and, 207; regime structure and, 77
Burundi: democratization as unsuccessful and, 205, 220; development ranking for, 360–61; genocidal violence and, 205, 220, 288, 319–20, 393n11; internal wars and, 124, 381n90; military rule and, 19, 145, 152; monarchy’s disappearance and, 124; single party system and, 152; state failure and, 76; territorial integrity, 92; territoriality and, 91–92, 393n11; women’s leadership in, 373
Cabral, Amilcar, 113
Callaghy, Thomas, 45
Cameroon: armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 12, 107, 111, 231; decolonization and, 12; development ranking for, 360–61; education system and, 325, 426n76; institutional frames and, 116, 117; integral state and, 55–56; legal status in context of decolonization and, 106; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 231; multiple party system and, 202, 207; nationalism and, 111; patrimonialism and, 28, 29, 176; state crisis avoidance and, 165; state decline and, 83; term limits and, 365; territorial integrity and, 302; territoriality and, 37, 90–91, 383n13
Campbell, John, 83, 150, 413n50
Cape Verde: decolonization and, 23; democratization and, 29, 381nn88–89; development and, 218, 358, 359, 360–61; diaspora and, 163; ethnonationalism and, 309; patrimonialism as lacking in, 71; single party system and, 209; state crisis avoidance and, 163
capitalism, 22, 34, 73–74. See also economics
Casamance, and Diola uprising, 248, 282, 284, 285, 301, 307
Case, William F., 28
Central Af
rican Federation, 93, 394n16
Central African Republic: development ranking for, 358, 360–61; hegemony imperative and, 347; internal wars and, 281, 381n90; international sanctions and, 298; liberal market model and, 66; military coups and rule in, 19, 144, 151; pathways to independence and, 366; patrimonialism and, 71; personal rule and, 80–81, 151; “racial partnership” and, 11, 90, 93; security imperative and, 129; separatism and, 248; state failure and, 210; universal suffrage and, 93–94, 394n16
Ceìsaire, Aimé, 112
Chabal, Patrick, 75, 108, 355
Chad: border disputes and, 167, 246; development ranking for, 358, 360–61; education system and, 166; hegemony imperative and, 153; integral state and, 60; internal wars and, 167, 234, 237–38, 381n90; liberal market model and, 66; military coups and rule in, 144, 145, 150; militias and, 166–67, 245; national conference mechanism blocked and, 199; state failure and, 75, 165–67, 234, 237–38, 406n29; term limits and, 365; warlords and, 166–67, 238, 244
Chaigneau, Pascal, 32
Chalabi, H. E., 79
Chama Cha Mapinduzi or Revolutionary Party (formerly Tanganyika African National Union), 15, 106, 209
Chazan, Naomi, 25, 78, 168
children and youth: education system and, 363; human rights abuses and, 260, 279, 286–87; in militias, 206, 266, 277, 284; territorial nationalism and, 326–27
child soldiers, 30, 171, 245, 250, 253, 260, 283, 286
China: cold war context for decolonization and, 118; development successes and, 7, 15, 118, 341; foreign aid and, 190, 357; foreign investments and, 357; integral state and, 23; liberal market model and, 29, 34, 53, 66; nationalism and, 307
Chissano, Joaquim, 172, 365
Christianity, 43, 219, 241, 278, 322, 420n86
citizenship, 37, 299, 422n13
civil society: coups by, 27, 64, 192, 223–24, 414n69; democratization and, 197–99, 209, 218, 223; health services and, 43, 161, 241; internal wars and, 266, 289; militias’ reliance on disaffection in, 284; new technologies and, 6, 49, 107, 340, 373; pathways to independence and, 28; sovereignty and, 27; state as actor and, 51–52, 73; state crisis in context of, 192–93; state weakness and, 73; term limits and, 365; welfare of, 34, 52–53, 61. See also education system; population/s