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Partido africano da indepência de Guiné e Cabo Verde (PAIGC), 108, 109, 159, 163
pathways to independence: overview of, 9, 28–31, 366, 381nn88–90; authoritarianism and, 28; autocratic rule and, 28; civil society and, 28; decolonization and, 99–101, 395nn33–34, 395n34, 395n36, 396n37, 396n39; democratization and, 28–29; internal wars and, 28, 30; liberal market model and, 28, 29; militias and, 30; polyarchies and, 29, 381n88; semidemocratization and, 28–29, 65, 70–71, 221; state failure and, 28
patrimonialism, 9, 24, 64–65, 67–71, 76, 175–76, 194–95, 339
periodization: six phases of, 8–10, 10; three-cycle, 8–10, 10, 19, 26, 28, 122, 157, 224. See also decolonization settlement breakdown; democratization; independence for states; state crisis; and specific phases
personal rule, 9, 23–24, 59–60, 75–76, 80–81, 129, 187–89, 409n77. See also ruler’s imperative
piracy, 191, 265–68, 288
Pitcher, M. Anne, 65, 66
POLISARIO (Frente popular para la liberación de Saguia el-Hamra y Rio de Oro), 232, 247, 396n43
politics and political parties, 7, 14–17, 67, 94–95, 137, 139, 161, 388n93. See also elections; multiple party system; single party system; and specific parties
polyarchy/ies, 29, 381n88
population/s: attributes of state and, 37; displacement of, 278–80. See also civil society
Portugal, 3, 23, 60, 93, 101–3, 108, 234–35, 302. See also specific states
postcolonial state: “postcolonial,” as term of use and, 339; postcolonial studies and, 339, 401n98. See also state
power, state, 40, 96–98, 394n23, 395n25, 395n28
primordialism, 316
privatization, 62, 65–66, 179
property rights: accumulation imperative, 49–50; democratization and, 48; ethnicity and, 326–27; governance and, 48; integral state, 65, 177; liberal market model, 62; single party system, 128–29; territoriality and, 293; women’s, 326–27, 389n103, 407n49
Przeworeski, Adam, 218
Qadhafy, Muammar, 59–60, 150, 152, 289, 297–98, 362–63, 387n74, 432n56
race: anticolonial nationalism and, 113–14; armed liberation struggles and, 113–14; multiracialism and, 102, 115, 170, 296, 299, 311; pan-Africanism and, 113; racial identity and, 298–99; “racial partnership” and, 11, 90, 93, 299; racism and, 6, 99, 111
Rassemblement congolais pour la démocratie (RCD), 276
rational choice theory, 303–4, 318
Ravenhill, John, 45, 179
Rawlings, Jerry, 169–70
reason of state: colonial state and, 337; international system and, 42; personal rule and, 187; regime imperative and, 76–77; revenue imperative and, 156; ruler’s imperative and, 81; security imperative and, 157; state as actor and, 44, 51–52; territoriality and, 90
reconciliation, 210, 260, 289, 412n38
regime structure: overview of, 77; Africa as concept and, 7, 376n13; constitutionalism and, 7, 77; democratization and, 208, 208; ethnic security map and, 78, 149; legitimation imperative and, 353–54; military coups and, 124, 134, 140, 157, 281, 286, 336, 365; state and, 76–78; state crisis and, 187. See also ruler’s imperative
religious ideology: Christianity and, 43, 219, 241, 278, 322, 420n86; identity and, 219, 309; militias and, 284. See also Islamism
Reno, William, 75, 188, 303–4, 347
representative institutions: decolonization and, 92–93, 394n15; legitimation imperative and, 47; revenue imperative and, 48; sovereignty and, 39
Rêsistencia nacional Moçambicana (RENAMO), 171–72, 229, 245, 286, 288, 349
revenue imperative: overview of, 48–49, 355–57; constitutionalism and, 48; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 155–56; foreign aid and, 156; representative institutions and, 48; SAPs and, 355; state crisis and, 191–92; state crisis in context of shortfalls and, 48–49
Revolutionary United Front (RUF), 251–60, 288
rhizome state, 55–56, 68
Richards, Paul, 260
Rimmer, Douglas, 168
Rodney, Walter, 22
Rosberg, Carl, 23–24, 25, 80
Rothchild, Donald, 78
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 38, 138, 384n20 Rudolph, Lloyd, 342
Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber, 342
Rueschmeyer, Dietrich, 82–83
rule of law (law). See also law (rule of law)
ruler’s imperative: “big man” tradition and, 24, 68, 79, 391n132; constitutionalism and, 79, 82; legitimation imperative and, 353–54; parliamentarianism and, 79; state and, 76–77, 78–82; sultanism and, 79, 188, 362, 432n56. See also personal rule; regime structure
Rwanda: democratization as unsuccessful and, 205–6, 210, 220; development ranking for, 358, 359, 360–61; diaspora and, 206, 220; ethnicity and, 323; genocidal violence and, 205–6, 220, 288, 319–20, 393n11; indigeneity and, 220; internal wars and, 210, 381n90; interpenetrated conflicts and, 288; legitimation imperative and, 353; military rule and, 151; militias and, 206, 286; natural resources and, 277; “official mind” in context of U.S. as actor and, 384n30; territorial integrity, 92; territoriality and, 91–92, 393n11; women’s leadership in, 373
Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), 206, 412n31
Salameì, Ghassan, 219, 410n3
Sandbrook, Richard, 73, 222
Sanderson, G. N., 4
Sao Tome and Principe, 23, 60–61, 309, 360–61 , 379n63, 381n88, 403n34
Sara ethnic group, 60, 166–67, 406n29
Schatzberg, Michael, 5, 69–70, 317, 354, 421n1, 422n11
Scott, James, 37, 120
secessionism, 274, 299, 313, 336, 376n12
security imperative: overview of, 46, 348–49, 350–51, 431n38; border disputes and, 30, 154, 232; colonial state and, 129; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 154–55; ethnic security map and, 78, 149; foreign aid and, 29, 349; hegemony and, 155; internal wars and, 349, 431n38; military coups and, 348; militias and, 348–49; presidential security officers and, 140; single party system and, 129; state crisis and, 190–91; state failure and, 46
security services: autocratic rule and, 410n3; democratization and, 223–24; hegemony imperative and, 153; military coups and, 140, 145, 348; state crisis and, 46, 171, 176, 212. See also security imperative
Selassie, Haile, I (emperor of Ethiopia), 20, 126, 243
self-determination: decolonization settlement and, 88, 91; ethnicity and, 272–73; individual versus group behavior and, 330–31; internal wars and, 238, 239; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 230–31; militias and, 230; nation-state and, 41; pan-Africanism and, 294; separatism and, 244
semidemocratization (semiauthoritarianism), 28–29, 65, 70–71, 194–95, 209–10, 218, 221
Senegal: autonomy imperative and, 352; colonial legacy in, 119; cultural pluralism and, 219; democratization and, 336, 381n88; development ranking for, 360–61; indigeneity and, 284; integral state and, 55; internal wars and, 30, 381n90; leadership and, 364; liberalization and, 62, 64; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 229; monarchy’s disappearance and, 127–28; multiple military involvements and, 281–82; patrimonialism and, 71; regime structure and, 77; SAPs and, 352; security imperative and, 129, 349; separatism and, 248, 282, 284, 285, 301, 307; single party system and, 130, 137, 209; social promotion and, 134; territorial integrity and, 302; territoriality and, 91; universal suffrage and, 94
Senghor, Léopold, 12, 79, 82, 112, 130, 139, 189, 309, 364
separatism: overview of, 299; internal wars and, 238–43, 244–45, 248, 268, 270, 273–75, 281–82, 284–85, 289, 301, 307, 359; militias and, 241–42, 274
Seychelles, 39, 208, 350, 357, 358, 359, 360–61, 381n88
shadow state, 75, 188, 303–5, 347, 409n77
shari’a (Islamic law), 40–41, 120, 219, 264, 269, 270, 419n67
Shue, Vivienne, 73
Sierra Leone: democratization and, 145, 251–52, 381n88; development ranking for, 360–61, 363–64; diamonds and, 75, 251; electoral democracy and, 261; ethnicity and, 250, 261;
human rights abuses and, 254–56, 259–60, 417n42; independence elections and, 250; internal wars and, 381n90; international peacekeeping and, 251–52, 289; interpenetrated conflicts and, 249–61; management capacity of state and, 283; military intervention and, 145–46, 252; militias and, 255–56, 258, 267, 286; patrimonialism and, 71; personal rule and, 145, 188; reconciliation and, 260; shadow state and, 75; single party system and, 70; state failure and, 75, 76; state in social imaginary and, 260–61, 314; subaltern military coups and, 145–46; timetables for decolonization and, 96; universal suffrage and, 94; warlords and, 251, 259–60
Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP), 250, 256
single party system: overview of, 9, 16–19, 124; authoritarianism and, 17; autocratic rule and, 136–37, 402n15; autonomy imperative and, 154; cold war context for, 18; consolidation of, 137–38; constitutionalism and, 16, 128–30, 137; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 128–31; democratization and, 16–17; ethnicity and, 130–31, 138; international system and, 136, 139; justification for, 136–37, 138–40, 402n15, 402n20; military intervention and rule in, 18–19; parliamentarianism and, 130; personal rule and, 129; property rights and, 128–29; security imperative and, 129; territorial nationalism and, 312. See also decolonization settlement breakdown; elections; multiple party system
Sklar, Richard L., 196, 411n28
Smith, Adam, 87–88
Smith, Daniel Jordan, 240, 408n61
social class: armed liberation struggles and, 113–14, 158–59; group mobility and, 73, 325; integral state and, 59; multiple party system and, 139; single party system and, 16; state as actor and, 45, 73, 133–34
social imaginary, and state, 260–61, 268, 299, 305–6, 314–18, 355. See also memory, and territorial nationalism
socialism: Arabs and, 148, 150–51; Arusha Declaration in 1967 and, 22, 160; democratization and, 197, 202, 204; development and, 357; global environment post–cold war and, 247; independence for states and, 7; integral state and, 22, 24–25, 56, 60–61, 64, 160; legitimation imperative and, 47; normative state and, 53; state failure and, 168, 170–72; world regions comparisons and, 341, 362. See also Afromarxism; Marxism-Leninism
social services: decolonization settlement and, 15; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 132–33; economics and, 156, 161; integral state and, 62; state crisis and, 176–77
Somalia (formerly Somaliland): Afromarxism and, 264, 379n63; Al Qaeda and, 263–65, 267, 288; border disputes and, 154, 262–63, 348; colonial states and, 262, 395n28; cultural homogeneity and, 219; development and, 335, 358, 360–61; diaspora and, 260, 264–65; ethnicity and, 261, 262–63, 265, 268, 310; ethnonationalism and, 309, 320; foreign aid and, 283; human rights abuses and, 266; internal wars and, 30, 31, 195, 248, 261–68, 289, 381n90; international peacekeeping and, 263–65, 289, 298; international system and, 42, 267–68; Islamism and, 263–65, 287; Marxism-Leninism and, 60–61, 148; military rule and, 148; militias and, 30, 264–65, 266; narcotics trafficking and, 265–66, 288; nation-states and, 3–4; piracy and, 265–68; regime structure and, 77; security imperative and, 154–55, 190, 348; shari[‘]a and, 41, 264; state decline and, 261–63, 290; state failure and, 75, 76, 264; state in social imaginary and, 268, 299, 355; territorial integrity and, 301, 302; territoriality and, 92; terrorism and, 267; warlords and, 30, 261, 265–68, 272
Somali National Movement (SNM), 262, 267
Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), 262–63, 268
South Africa: overview of, 5; armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 107–10; autonomy imperative and, 45; cold war and, 23, 46, 190, 246, 349; colonial legacy in, 5, 337; constitutionalism and, 5, 27–28, 373; cultural pluralism and, 219; decolonization and, 88; democratization and, 27–28, 177, 195, 201–2, 373–74, 381n88; development and, 218, 358, 360–61, 361–62; foreign aid and, 235–36, 246; hegemony imperative and, 189; integral state and, 23, 105; legal status in context of decolonization and, 105, 106; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 229–30, 231; nationalism and, 110, 113–14; power transfer comparisons and, 96–97; race and, 113; regime structure and, 77; security imperative and, 154, 190, 349; state and, 373–74; state crisis and, 176, 177, 189; universal suffrage and, 27–28; white minority rule and, 27–28, 337, 375n1; women’s leadership in, 373; Zulu and, 125, 325, 331. See also specific groups, organizations and political parties
Southall, Aidan, 320
Southern African Development Community (SADC), 212, 221, 276–77, 298
Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). See Zimbabwe (formerly Southern Rhodesia)
southern Sudan, 336, 376n12; Africanism and, 240–41; Arab identity and, 240–41, 270; education system and, 241; ethnicity and, 270–72, 271–72, 419n68, 419n72; health services and, 241; hegemony imperative and, 153; human rights abuses and, 271–72, 419n68, 419n72; institutional frames and, 116–17, 400n88; internal wars and, 268–69, 282; legitimation imperative and, 155; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 229; militias and, 20–21, 242–43, 269–70, 274; Muslim Brotherhood and, 400n88; oil and, 269, 271–73, 419nn71–72; separatism and, 240–43, 244, 248, 299; South Sudan state and, 274, 299, 336, 376n12; territorial nationalism and, 306–7, 423n30. See also Sudan
Southern Sudan Defense Force (SSDF), 272–74
South Sudan, 274, 299, 336, 376n12. See also southern Sudan; Sudan
sovereignty: overview of, 3; Britain and, 11; cold war and, 15; constitutionalism and, 39; decolonization and, 95–96, 394n19, 394n20; economic dimension of, 15; external, 38, 39, 72, 302–3, 304, 351; France and, 11, 13; human rights abuses and, 39, 384n21; internal, 38, 39; internal wars and, 31; representative institutions and, 39; state crisis and, 25; state’s attributes, 37–40, 384nn20–21; state weakness and, 39–40. See also independence for states
Soviet Union: cold war and, 118; democratization and, 26; development successes and, 6–7, 15, 118; ethnonationalism and, 303; foreign aid and, 26, 172, 183–84, 190, 197, 233–35, 239, 245–46, 280–81, 283, 349; global environment post–cold war and, 197–98, 247; integral state and, 23; internal sovereignty and, 39; international system and, 135–36; liberal market model and, 53; military weapons black market and, 284–85; security imperative and, 155, 349; socialism and, 64
Spain, 46, 92, 93, 101–2, 232, 396nn40–41, 396n43
sports, 4–5, 42–43, 298, 311, 328, 355, 422n11, 427n87
Springborg, Robert, 348, 385n38, 414n69
state: overview of, 31, 32–33, 82–83, 334–35, 371–74, 428n1; authoritarianism and, 54–55, 64–65; constitutionalism and, 5, 33–34, 83; decolonization settlement breakdown in context of demarcation of, 131–32; dependency theory and, 22, 52, 60, 160, 386n54; development and, 14, 54–55; iconography and, 42, 131, 311; as idea in context of state’s attributes, 42–43; integral state and, 55–62, 387n77; internal wars and, 283; liberalization and, 62–65; liberal market model and, 53–54, 65–66, 386n55; management capacity of, 103–5, 173–75, 283, 397nn48–49, 421n93; narcotics trafficking and, 66; nation-state and, 41–42, 308, 309, 353–54; normative state and, 33–35, 52–54, 65–66; power of, 40, 96–98, 394n23, 395n25, 395n28; rational choice theory and, 303–4, 318; regime structure and, 76–78; rhizome, 55–56; ruler’s imperative and, 76–77, 78–82; secessionism and, 274, 299, 313, 336, 376n12; in social imaginary, 260–61, 268, 299, 305–6, 314–18, 355; sports and, 42–43; state theory and, 33–35, 34, 35, 71, 117–18, 338; state weakness and, 39–40, 72–75. See also colonial state; democratization; governments and governance; independence for states; integral state; postcolonial state; separatism; state, and conceptual debates; state as actor; state crisis; state decline; state failure; state persistence; state’s attributes; and specific states
state, and conceptual debates. See also state
state as actor: overview of, 43–44, 384n30; civil society and, 51–52, 73; limitations in concept of, 50–52; “official mind” and, 371–72, 384n30, 396n5; social class and, 45, 73, 133–34; state weakness and, 73. See also accumulation imperative; autonom
y imperative; hegemony imperative; legitimation imperative; revenue imperative; security imperative; state
state crisis: overview of, 9, 23–25, 158, 379n64; accumulation imperative and, 192; autonomy imperative and, 189–90; avoidance of, 163–65, 406n22, 406nn24–25; civil society’s reactions to, 192–93; corruption and, 24; debt and, 24–25, 61, 161, 357–58, 392n139, 432n52; debt crisis and, 24–25; democratization and, 177; democratization mobilization and, 177; economic dimension of, 177–79, 186, 187; external debt and, 24; hegemony imperative and, 189; integral state and, 159–63; kleptocracy and, 24; legitimation imperative and, 173, 175, 191, 353; militias and, 166–67; national conference mechanism and, 192; patrimonialism and, 24, 175–76; personal rule and, 23–24, 187–89; regime structure and, 187; revenue imperative and, 191–92; revenue shortfalls and, 48–49; SAPs and, 24–25, 177–79; security imperative and, 190–91; security services and, 46, 171, 176, 212; security state and, 46; social services and, 176–77; sovereignty and, 25; state capacity and, 173–75; state rehabilitation and, 193. See also development; state; state failure
state decline: overview of, 25, 32, 48; democratization and, 68; education system and, 262; internal wars and, 262, 290; legitimation imperative and, 353; state and, 5, 83. See also state; state failure
state expansion (integral state). See integral state (state expansion)
state failure: economics and, 167–70, 391n125; integral state and, 158–59, 404n6; internal wars and, 210, 229, 234–38; militias and, 75–76, 237; multiple party system and, 172; pathways to independence, 28; pathways to independence and, 28; security state and, 46; socialism and, 168, 170–72; state in context of conceptual debates and, 72, 75–76; warlords and, 75–76, 165–67. See also state; state crisis; state decline
state persistence, 260–61, 268, 299–306, 314–18, 355, 423n16, 423n20, 423n30. See also state
state’s attributes: overview of, 34–35, 346–47; government and, 35–36; international system and, 42; law and, 40–41; nation-state and, 41–42; population and, 37; power and, 40; shari’a and, 40–41; sovereignty and, 37–40, 384nn20–21; state as idea and, 42–43; state theory and, 33–35, 34–35, 35, 71, 117–18, 338; territoriality and, 36–37, 383nn12–13; territorial nationalism and, 305–7. See also state