Asian Traditions of Meditation

by Halvor Eifring

  Allah (or Allāh), 37, 106

  Amitābha, 33, 37, 175–177

  Amitāyus, 151, 153, 155–157, 159

  ānanda, 53–54, 58, 61–62, 64, 66n.13, 68n.29

  Ananda Marga, 229

  ānāpānasati, 40, 134

  an-ātman, 38.

  See also anattā; no(n)-self; self-negation

  anattā, 122.

  See also an-ātman; no(n)-self; self-negation

  anicca. See impermanence

  aniconic symbols (or yantras), 11, 71–72

  antaryāga, 76–77

  anuprekṣā. See four reflections

  anussati. See recollection

  apophatic practices, 5, 38, 186–187, 190–192, 195–197, 199–200, 201n.7

  ar(a)hat, 96, 122, 126–128, 130

  arousal reduction, 14–17

  asaṁprajñāta samādhi, 64–66, 69n.38

  ascesis (or asceticism), 10, 48, 94, 104, 115

  asmitā, 51, 53–54, 58, 61–64, 66n.12, 68n.34

  asubha, 99n.9, 124, 130–131, 140n.21.

  See also foulness (or the foul)

  ātma(n), 9, 62, 68n.30

  attention, xi–xii, 5–8, 18, 20nn.31–32, 21n.43, 28, 40, 125, 127, 131, 181n.42, 190, 197, 211, 230, 232, 234–235, 237;

  focus of, 8, 19n.3, 28;

  mindful, 42n.16;

  mode of, 8, 44;

  unified, 187, 189.

  See also awareness; focused attention

  attention-based technique, 1–2, 4, 17

  attention training, 11.

  See also awareness training

  awareness, 35, 51–53, 55–58, 60–65, 67n.17, 68n.32, 69n.34, 75–76, 78, 83, 90, 123, 129, 132, 134–135, 187–188, 208, 211–212;

  open (or inclusive, choiceless), 16–17, 29–31, 41n.11;

  physical, 48, 53, 55.

  See also attention; mindful awareness (or presence); puruṣa: awareness of; subtle awareness; śūnyatā: awareness of; universal principle: awareness of; Way (Dào): awareness of the

  awareness-in-action, 210

  awareness training, x, 8, 20n.32.

  See also attention training

  Āyāraṅga, 93

  bahiryāga, 76–77

  Benson, Herbert, 229, 232–233

  Bhai Gurdas, 109, 118n.22

  bhakti, 49, 103–104, 106.

  See also devotion

  Bhaskararāya Makhin, 71, 77

  bhāv(a)nā, 39, 75–77, 96, 115, 134, 138

  Bhāvanopaniṣad Bhāṣya, 77

  Bhoja Rāja, 62–63

  bīja, 64.

  See also nirbīja; sabīja

  bindu, 72–73, 78–79, 85–86, 88–90

  biofeedback, 233, 238n.5

  birth and death: beyond, 107;

  breaking one’s mind of, 14, 169;

  liberation from, 104, 150

  bla, 152

  body and breath practices (or techniques), x, 11, 132

  body practices, 18.

  See also mindfulness of body

  brahman, 9, 62, 68nn.30, 33, 88, 90

  brahmavihāra, 129, 135

  Brahm Bunga Trust, 112, 119n.32

  brain waves, 30, 40, 234, 239n.42

  breath, 6, 35–37, 109–110, 133–134, 138–139, 140n.21, 141n.26, 142n.42, 187–190, 233;

  counting of, 31;

  natural, 30.

  See also body and breath practices (or techniques); dbugs; prāṇa; qì

  breath cultivation, 187–188

  breathing, 93, 110, 160, 188, 191, 196–197.

  See also mindfulness of breathing

  breathing meditation, 16, 18, 31, 35

  breathing regulation, 112, 216, 222nn.40–41

  breathing techniques (or practices), 6, 18, 49, 104, 109–110, 160

  Buddha, 7, 11, 33, 66n.13, 99n.12, 122, 127–128, 130, 132, 135, 140n.6, 141n.28, 142n.43, 145–146, 148, 150–151, 170, 177

  Buddhaghosa, 34, 124–127, 129, 131–134, 138, 140n.8, 141n.29, 142nn.40, 42

  Buddhahood, 145–147, 150–151, 160–161, 175–176

  Buddha invocation, 170, 174–176, 178, 181n.34.

  See also nen butsu; niàn(-)fó

  Buddha nature, 9, 37, 146, 166–167, 169–170, 172–173

  buddhi, 51, 52, 58, 59, 61–63, 67n.28, 68n.31

  cakra, xii–xiii, 9, 37, 71, 78–88, 161n.2.

  See also Śrīcakra

  calm(ness), xii, 14, 79, 83, 122–123, 126, 130–131, 136, 140n.13, 141n.37, 172–173, 179, 191–192, 197.

  See also samatha

  calming the mind, 136–137, 172–173, 179, 216, 221

  Cáodòng tradition, 165–166, 171–175

  Centering Prayer, 35

  Chán, 13, 165–179

  chanting, 5, 36–37, 85, 104, 110–114, 123, 134, 136, 175, 181n.34

  ’Chi med Srog Thig, 147, 149–157, 155, 160

  citta, 51, 52–54, 56, 58, 59, 61–65

  clarity, 14–17, 195, 208

  Cloud of Unknowing, 14, 27, 32–33, 36

  compassion, 135, 142n.39, 145

  concentration, xi, 15, 27–30, 32–33, 35, 40n.1, 41n.11, 42n.16, 48–49, 54, 60, 62, 64, 67n.17, 72, 74, 89, 110–112, 114–115, 117n.1, 128–129, 133, 174, 176, 188–191, 196–197, 211, 216, 218, 234, 236.

  See also absorption; dhāraṇā; dhyān(a); meditation: concentrative vs. nonconcentrative; samatha; savicāra

  Confucius, 187, 191–192

  consciousness, 64, 81, 86, 90, 97, 108, 112, 125, 129, 146, 187, 190;

  center of, 78, 85;

  divine, 15, 19n.1, 86;

  energy of, 76;

  fire of, 89;

  full, xi, 212;

  individual, 192–193;

  light of, 75;

  objective, 73 (see also śakti);

  pure, 52, 63, 65, 71–73 (see also puruṣa; śakti);

  sense, 80;

  states (or levels, planes, spheres) of, 21n.60, 46, 53, 69n.37, 73, 78, 83, 129;

  stream of, 40;

  subjective, 73 (see also Śiva);

  surface, 213;

  transformation of, 49, 77, 83

  consciousness-as-power, 87

  constructivism, ix, 11, 37–38, 41n.7

  context, 7, 28, 41n.7, 104, 136, 147;

  American, 152;

  Asian, 152;

  Buddhist, 6, 34, 136;

  Chinese, 33, 180n.13;

  Christian, 5–6;

  Confucian, xiv;

  contemporary, 9;

  cultural, 9, 11–12, 160, 228;

  Daoist, 6;

  European, 228;

  Indian, 53, 231;

  Jain, 98;

  medical, 152;

  modern, 14, 17, 29, 33, 130, 135, 238;

  monastic, 135;

  mystical, 201;

  phenomenal, 73;

  post-Vedic, 49;

  political, 198;

  premodern, 10, 153;

  psychological, 237;

  public vs. private, 135;

  religious, 11–12, 228;

  ritual, 152;

  scientific, xi, 33;

  secular, xi;

  social, 12, 117;

  sociocultural, xiii, xiv, 11, 227;

  suggestive vs. nonsuggestive, 28, 37, 39;

  symbolic, xiii;

  Tibetan, 153;

  traditional, 17, 112, 227;

  Yogic, 6

  correlative cosmology, 200

  cosmic energy, 6, 37, 71

  cosmic principle, 85, 89, 194

  Dàhuì Zōnggǎo, 14, 165–175, 179;

  critique of seated meditation, 166–169;

  and doubt, 170–171;

  enlightenment and, 167, 170–171

  dāntián, 37, 216

  Dào. See Way (Dào)

  Daoist rulership, 198–199

  dbugs, 152

  death, 63n.31, 93–94, 131;

  averting, 147, 157;

  fearless of, 114;

  initiatory, 86;

  meditation on, xi, 38, 43;

>   mindfulness of, 132–133, 137, 141n.31;

  surmounting, 114

  decontextualization, 228, 238

  default mode network, 40, 230, 235–237, 239n.42

  deity, 28, 35, 37, 71–73, 75–78, 80, 85–86, 88–89, 109, 132, 146–148, 151–160

  devotion, x–xi, 2, 5–6, 18, 35, 38, 49, 103–116, 117n.1, 122, 128, 210, 228.

  See also bhakti

  Dhammapada, 122–128, 133, 138, 139nn.1–2

  dhāraṇā, 48, 75

  dhikr, x, 4, 12, 18, 36, 118n.18

  dhyān(a), 4, 7, 13, 15, 49, 74–76, 99nn.4–5, 115;

  afflicted (ārta), 94, 96;

  four (in Buddhism), 66n.13;

  four (in Jainism), 94–97;

  pious (dharmya), 94–96;

  pure (śukla), 94–96;

  wrathful (raudra), 94, 96

  dhyāna śloka, 72, 75

  doubt, 16, 37, 170–179, 180n.22

  drowsiness, 15–16, 112, 125, 218, 234, 237

  duān-zuò, 5, 13

  Dudjom Rinpoche, 147, 149–150, 156

  Dusenbery, Verne, 116

  ecstasy, 14, 16, 21n.47, 40, 90, 136

  effortlessness, 8, 30, 32–33, 114, 169

  ekaggatā (or ekāgrata), 33–34, 126, 136.

  See also one-pointedness

  ekatānatā, 33.

  See also one-pointedness

  Eliade, Mircea, 16, 39–40

  emotion, 7, 16, 28–29, 31, 38, 51–52, 80, 107, 115, 138, 145, 187, 235, 237;

  observing, 210, 115;

  positive vs. negative, 9, 83;

  reducing (or eliminating, regulating, restricting), 190, 196, 200, 232

  emotional change, 230

  emotional pattern, 9, 17, 41n.11

  emotional processing, 40, 234, 236

  emotional unification (or integration), 122, 136

  emptiness, 9, 15, 85, 156, 186–187, 189, 191–192, 195, 197, 200, 208, 219.

  See also śūnyatā; void; xū

  encounter dialogue, 165, 168, 179n.3

  energy, 76, 83, 86–87, 209, 216;

  cosmic, 6, 71 (see also śakti);

  vital, 82, 87, 186, 188–189, 193 (see also prāṇa; qì);

  life, 152, 160 (see also bla)

  energy center. See cakra

  energy manipulation, 8

  enlightened Buddha (or guru, master, ruler), 94, 96, 107, 145, 150–151, 199, 200

  enlightenment, xii, 95, 114, 138, 146, 150–151, 165, 167, 170–174, 177–179, 208, 212–213, 218, 232

  enstasis (or enstasy), 16, 40, 78

  Epistle of Prayer, 5, 10, 14

  focus: forceful vs. effortless, 32–33;

  meditative, 48, 59, 61, 165;

  mental (or inward), 19n.3, 34–35, 63, 79;

  narrow (or exclusive) vs. open, 17, 29, 31–33, 56, 129, 210

  focused attention, 27, 30, 41n.11, 187, 189

  formless spheres, 124, 128–130, 135.

  See also meditation: formless

  foulness (or the foul), 122, 130–131, 142n.42

  four reflections, 94–96

  fundamental aspects of reality (or existence), 9–10, 12, 14–15, 17–18, 212, 219

  Gāo Pānlóng, 214–215, 218, 221nn.30,36

  Gītā, 62–63, 65–66

  God, 5–6, 9, 33, 36, 57, 103–117.

  See also Allah (or Allāh); Īśvara

  god, 15, 18, 103–117, 132, 145, 148, 153, 158

  goddess, 37, 71, 75–78, 83, 85, 153, 159–160.

  See also Tripurasundarī

  Goenka, S. N., 98

  gōng’àn, 20n.18, 165–179.

  See also keyword; kōan; niànfó gōng’àn

  gross element, 51–52, 55, 58–64, 68, 85–86.

  See also mahābhūta

  gross form, 50, 76–78, 84

  gter-ma, 148–150, 153, 155–156, 159, 161n.8

  gter-ston, 147–149, 161n.8, 161nn.10–11

  guṇa, 50, 51, 54, 58, 61–62, 67n.26, 68n.28

  gurdwārā, 105, 110–113

  gurmantra, 108–111, 113, 119n.34

  gurmukhi script, 105

  guru, 10, 57, 76, 88–89, 103–116, 118n.20, 230

  Gurū Arjan, 105, 113

  Gurū Gobind Singh, 105, 108

  Gurū Granth Sāhib, 103, 105–109, 112–113, 116, 117n.6, 118n.15, 119n.34.

  See also Ādi Granth

  Gurū Nānak, 104–107, 115, 118n.18

  Hānshān Déqīng (1546–1623), 16, 27, 32–35, 37, 178

  Haribhadra, 97

  Hatha Yoga, 5, 18

  health, 17, 19, 122, 127, 133, 146–147, 150–153, 158–160, 186, 201n.5, 227–228

  Hemacandra, 95, 97–98

  huàtóu, 33, 166–179, 180n.10.

  See also kànhuà; keyword

  Huìnéng, 5, 166, 168

  hypnosis, 7, 11, 29, 39–40, 231

  image, 5, 7, 19n.3, 29, 34–36, 54–55, 75–76, 88, 122, 125–127, 130, 154, 160.

  See also nimitta; pratyaya

  impermanence, 122, 127–128, 131, 134

  inner cultivation, 186–188, 190–200, 201n.25

  inner transformation, xi–xii, 2, 4, 8–9, 12, 14, 17–18, 107, 111, 138

  inside-out changes (or processes), 12, 29

  insight, 12, 54–57, 62, 71–72, 127–131;

  calm and, 122–123, 126, 134, 140n.13, 141n.37;

  concentration and, 27, 29, 40n.1, 41n.11;

  discriminating, 94.

  See also vipassanā (or vipaśyanā, Vipassana)

  insight meditation, 16, 42n.41, 230, 239n.19

  Inward Training, 186, 188–190, 192–195, 200n.1

  Īśvara, 9, 54, 65, 69n.39

  janam-sākhī, 107, 118n.20

  jap(a), 18, 117n.1, 118n.15;

  akhaṇḍ, 113, 119n.34

  Japjī Sāhib, 106, 108, 117n.5

  Jesus Prayer, x, 18, 20n.15

  jhāna (or jhāṇa). See dhyāna śloka

  Jina, 94, 96

  jìng(-)zuò, 4, 13, 166, 207.

  See also quiet sitting

  jñāna, 49, 73–74, 76, 78

  Jñānārṇava, 97

  Kabat-Zinn, Jon, 14, 229–230, 232

  kaivalya, 52, 69n.38

  kammaṭṭhāna, 124, 138

  kànhuà, xii, 165–179;

  calmness and, 171–173;

  doubt and, 170–171, 173–175;

  enlightenment and, 167.

  See also huàtóu; keyword

  karma, 65, 93, 95, 105, 138, 142n.45;

  positive (or good) vs. negative, 114, 147, 156

  kasiṇa, 124–126, 128–129, 131, 140n.14, 140nn.15–16, 140nn.21, 23, 141n.26, 142n.42

  Kaulāvalīnirṇaya, 89

  keyword, xii, 20n.15, 32–33, 37, 165–168, 174, 177.

  See also gōng’àn; huàtóu; kànhuà; kōan

  khālsā, 103, 105, 108, 110

  kīrtan, 105, 109, 112

  kōan, 7, 12, 20n.18, 31, 37, 138.

  See also gōng’àn

  Kulārṇava, 72

  Kuṇḍalinī yoga, 81, 86–89

  kusala-citta, 127–128, 135

  Lakṣmīdhara, 85

  Lǎozǐ, 37, 185–200

  liṅga, 67n.28, 86–88

  Línjì tradition, 165–166, 171–172

  logismoí, 34

  loving-kindness, 16, 135, 141n.30, 142n.38, 230, 239n.19

  Lù Lǒngqí, 214–215, 218

  Lǚshì chūnqiū, 185–186, 190–194

  macrocosm, 78, 86, 88

  madness, 12

  Mahābhārata, 53, 66n.13

  mahābhūta, 51, 52, 58, 59, 61

  Mahāprajña, 98, 100n.22

  Mahāvīra, 93, 96

  Mahesh Yogi, 228

  manas, 51, 52, 58, 62

  maṇḍala, 72, 78, 118n.20, 125, 148, 153, 155, 158–160

  mantra, 28, 42, 71–74, 77, 90, 97, 109, 118n.20, 140n.11;

  meaningless, 11, 37;

  repetition (or chanting, recitation) of, x, 30,
77, 85, 159, 160, 179;

  seed, 73, 86–87, 159

  mantra (or mantric) meditation, 29, 36, 140n.11.

  See also gurmantra

  manuals, 106, 108, 124, 131, 139n.3, 207, 216–219, 222n.51

  maqāmāt, 13

  martial arts, 18, 22

  māyā, 73, 105

  McLeod, W. H., 107

  medicine, x, 2, 11–12, 17, 124, 147, 152, 157–158, 186, 189, 196, 233–234

  meditātiō, 1, 35

  meditation: Asian, ix–xi, 1, 29, 35–36, 227–228;

  Buddhist, xi–xiii, 1, 6, 15–16, 40n.1, 66n.13, 98, 122–139, 145–161, 165–179, 189, 214, 216, 228–232, 234–237;

  canonical vs. noncanonical, 93–99;

  Chán, 166, 210, 217;

  Christian, x, 1, 35–36, 228;

  classification of, 8, 27–40, 93, 96;

  communal (or collective) vs. individual, 7, 10–11, 18, 132;

  concentrative vs. nonconcentrative, 16–17, 28, 30–32, 35, 39–40, 49, 54, 60, 234, 236;

  Confucian, ix, xii, xiv, 9, 132, 192, 207–220;

  Daoist, ix, xii–xiii, 9, 33, 38, 185–186, 189, 200, 216;

  definition of, xii, 1–19, 111, 168;

  directive vs. nondirective, 27–40, 234, 236–237;

  discursive vs. nondiscursive, 1, 35–36;

  effect of, 6, 11, 15, 27, 38–40, 227–235, 237;

  European, x, 2, 29, 34, 227–228;

  formless, 76, 129, 133–134;

  Greco-Roman, x–xi;

  guided vs. self-administered, 7, 11, 39;

  Hindu, 9, 18, 48, 71, 97;

  Indian (or Indic), 39, 110, 114, 138;

  Islamic, x, 36, 228;

  Jain(a), xii–xiii, 93–99, 137;

  Judaic, x, 36, 228;

  lying, 13, 31, 141n.29, 166–168,

  modern, xii, 9, 27, 36, 227, 237–238;

  moving, 186;

  Neo-Confucian, xii, xiv, 9, 132, 207–220;

  recitative, x, xii, 8, 12, 35, 103, 106, 109–111, 114–116;

  seated, 168–170, 180n.17;

  sitting, 127, 132–135, 141nn.28, 37, 166–170, 186;

  stages of, 13, 30, 48–66, 71–91, 95–99, 108, 118n.18, 122–139, 202n.55;

  standing, 13, 31, 128, 132, 141n.29, 166–168;

  study of, ix–x, xiii–xiv, 3–4, 36, 227–231, 233–237;

  Sufi, x, 4, 10, 12–13, 18, 36, 118n.18;

  Tantric, 4, 39, 71–91, 145–161;

  the term, xi, 1, 4, 7, 13, 15, 18, 35, 39, 66n.13, 93–94, 99n.4, 134, 168, 223;

  thematic vs. nonthematic, x–xi, 28, 31, 36–39, 228;

  Tibetan, xii–xiii, 9, 17, 132–133, 145, 161, 230, 239n.19;

  walking, 13, 31, 125, 132, 135, 141n.29, 166–168;

  Zen, xii–xiii, 8, 31, 165–179, 229, 231–232, 234.

  See also breathing meditation; dhyāna śloka; duān-zuò; jìng(-)zuò; muraqaba; quiet sitting; samādhi; yoga