Asian Traditions of Meditation

by Halvor Eifring

  meditation object, xi, 5, 7–13, 21n.43, 28–39, 41n.11, 42n.41, 54–65, 67n.19, 68n.29, 72, 93, 97, 122–139, 237;

  thematic vs. nonthematic, 28, 31, 35–39.

  See also kammaṭṭhāna

  mental attitude, 8, 14, 28–31, 237

  microcosm, 77–78, 86, 88

  mindful awareness (or presence), 15, 33–34

  mindfulness, 35, 76, 122, 126–127, 132–133, 142n.42, 227, 230, 232, 235–237, 239n.19;

  concentration and, 35, 40n.1, 42n.16, 128;

  vipassanā and, 27, 31, 40n.1, 41n.11

  mindfulness meditation, 14, 230, 232, 235–236

  mindfulness of body, 123, 132–133, 141n.26

  mindfulness of breathing, 40n.1, 132–134, 141n.26

  mind wandering, 15–16, 34, 40, 140n.14, 230, 234–237

  mokṣa, 52, 114

  monothetic definition, 3–4

  mu’āyana, 13

  mudrā, 71, 74, 80, 158, 180

  mukti, 52, 114

  muraqaba, 13, 118n.18

  mushāhada, 13

  mystical experience, ix, 10, 104, 107–108, 114, 185, 208

  mysticism, 9, 12, 18, 20n.36, 38, 43n.46, 66n.10

  nāḍī, 81, 161n.2

  nām, 106–108, 113–114, 117n.6, 118n.22

  name of the Buddha (or Buddha[’s] name), x, 33, 36–37, 174–178, 181n.34

  nām simran, x, xii, 9, 103–117

  Nèiyè. See Inward Training

  nen butsu, x, 18.

  See also Buddha invocation; niàn(-)fó

  neuroimaging, 40, 230, 234

  neuroscience, 235, 237

  niàn(-)fó, x, 18, 170, 175–179, 181n.34.

  See also Buddha invocation; nen butsu

  niànfó gōng’àn, 177, 178, 179, 181n.52

  nibbāna, 127, 129, 137.

  See also nirvana

  nimitta, 125–127, 130, 134, 141n.26

  nirbīja, 64–65, 90

  nirguṇa, 104

  nirodhaḥ, 53

  nirvana, 159.

  See also nibbāna

  nirvicāra, 58, 59–62, 94

  nirvikalpa, 57, 58

  nirvitarka, 55–57, 58, 60–61, 64

  no(n)-self, 38, 131.

  See also an-ātman; anattā; self-negation

  nonaction, 186, 194, 198–200

  nyāsa, 76, 85

  obstacle, 15, 32, 34–35, 68n.34, 80, 127, 146–147

  one-pointedness, 8, 31, 33–34, 54, 122, 126.

  See also ekaggatā (or ekāgrata); ekatānatā

  open monitoring, 27, 30, 41n.11

  original nature, xii, 177, 207, 209–216, 219

  outside-in changes (or processes), 11–12, 28–29

  Padmasambhava, 148, 150, 153, 158–160

  Patañjali, 48–49, 52–55, 57–59, 61–65, 66n.13, 68nn.29–30, 69n.39, 97

  perennialism, ix, 9, 12, 15, 20n.36

  posture (or position), 5, 8, 17–18, 76, 110, 132–135, 141, 176, 187–188, 197, 237;

  cross-legged, 13;

  lying, 13, 141n.29, 168;

  samādhi, 131–132;

  seated, 4, 13, 17, 168–169;

  sitting, 110, 132, 134–135, 168–169, 187;

  standing, 13, 112, 132, 141n.29, 168;

  walking, 13, 132, 135, 141n.29, 168

  prakṛti, 49–50, 51, 58, 59, 61–65, 67nn.26,28, 68n.31

  prāṇa, 37, 82–83, 87.

  See also vital energy

  pratyaya, 54–55, 67n.18

  prayer, xivn.3, 1, 5–6, 17–19, 34–36, 106, 111–113, 117n.1, 119n.34, 157.

  See also Centering Prayer; Jesus Prayer

  prekṣā-dhyāna, 98

  psycho-cosmos, 73–74, 78, 86, 88

  psychotherapy, x, 7, 18–19, 29, 41n.10, 231–232

  pūjā, 78, 90

  Pure Land, 172, 175–177

  puruṣa, 9, 49, 51, 52, 54–55, 58, 62–65, 66n.13, 68nn.30,32, 68n.34, 69n.39;

  awareness of, 63–65

  qì, 37, 188–190, 197, 200.

  See also vital energy

  Qì-gōng (or Qigong), 8, 18, 230

  quiet sitting, xii, 166, 169, 180n.17, 207–220, 227.

  See also jìng(-)zuò

  quietude, xii, 13–14, 19n.3, 169, 172, 208, 210–213, 215, 218

  rahit-nāmā, 108

  rajas, 50, 51, 58, 67n.26, 83

  recitation, x, 4, 36–37, 94;

  buddha-name (Chinese Zen), 175–178, 181n.34;

  divine name (Sikh), 103–105, 107, 112, 115, 118n.29, 119n.34;

  mantra (Tantra), 77, 159–160

  recollection, 117n.1, 123–124, 126, 131–134, 141n.30

  recontextualization, 228, 238

  recorded sayings, 11, 166–167, 180n.29

  relaxation, xii, 14–15, 17, 229, 231–234, 236–237;

  logic, 21n.57, 36

  relaxation response, 29, 229–233, 237

  relaxation techniques, 1, 17

  religious conversion, 10–12

  remembrance, 103–104, 107–108, 113–114, 116, 117n.1

  repetition, 5, 17–19, 29, 37, 94, 103, 107–116, 119n.34;

  inner (or mental), 139, 174.

  See also mantra: repetition (or chanting, recitation) of

  Rinzai. See Línjì tradition

  ritual, x–xi, 1, 5, 18–19, 71–78, 85, 89–90, 91n.5

  śābda (or śabad), 37, 105, 107, 114

  sabīja, 64, 67n.17

  sādh sangat, 111–112

  śakti, 9, 61, 71–73, 76, 80–81, 85, 87–88, 90

  Śākyamuni, 146

  samādhi, xii, 13, 15, 34, 40, 48–66, 78, 90.

  See also posture (or position): samādhi; samāpatti

  samāpatti, 54–58, 60–61, 64, 67nn.19, 21.

  See also samādhi

  sāmarasya, 77

  samatha, 27, 29–31, 122, 126–128, 130–132, 134–135

  Sāṁkhya, 49, 51–52, 54, 57–59, 62, 66n.10

  saṁprajñāta, 53–54, 62–65, 67n.19

  saṁskāra, 52, 55–57, 64–65, 66n.12, 67nn.17–18

  sangha, 132

  sànluàn, 20n.31, 35

  Sant tradition, 104, 107, 118n.18

  sat-tarka, 77

  sattva, 50, 51, 58, 61, 62, 67n.26, 68n.29, 83

  savicāra, 58, 60, 64

  savikalpa, 57, 58

  savitarka, 55–57, 58, 60, 64

  seed. See bīja

  self, 9–11, 15, 38, 49, 62–63, 66n.13, 68nn.31,33, 69n.38, 76, 97, 122, 161, 194, 201n.7, 209, 213, 216, 221nn.11,29;

  inner, 85, 89, 108, 208, 210, 211, 216, 221n.29;

  physical, 82, 209;

  psychic, 82;

  sense of, 51;

  true, 39, 64, 76, 208, 221n.11.

  See also an-ātman; anattā; ātma(n); no(n)-self; puruṣa

  self-awareness, 51, 56, 65, 235

  self-centeredness, 103, 105, 114, 116

  self-cultivation, 111, 186, 208, 210, 212, 215

  self-negation, 186, 201n.7.

  See also anātman; anattā; no(n)-self

  self-transformation, 10, 12, 18

  sēvā, 116

  shamanism, 14, 18, 147–148, 152, 160

  Sheng Yen, 6, 35

  shi-kan ta-za, 6, 8

  siddhi, 59, 67n.21, 79, 97, 147, 150, 153, 159

  silence, 14, 90, 122, 179, 186–187, 192, 216

  silent illumination, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 175

  sitting in oblivion, 38

  Śiva, 9, 72–73, 76, 85, 87–88, 90

  sleep, 15–16, 21n.60, 50, 66n.11, 69n.37, 170, 218, 233–234

  Sōtō. See Cáodòng tradition

  spiritual exercise, xi, 36

  Śrīcakra, 71–72, 74, 76–79

  Śrīvidyā, 71–72, 76–77, 80

  Śrīyantra, 71–73, 75, 77–78, 80, 82, 85, 88, 89, 91

  state (of mind [or consciousness, awareness]), xiii, 1–2, 4, 13–18, 28, 31, 39, 48, 50–69, 73, 78–79, 83, 90, 96–97, 122, 126, 142n.42, 190, 196–197, 208�
��210, 212–213, 216–219;

  emotional and cognitive, 115;

  enlightened, 128, 150, 161n.13;

  meditative (or meditation[al]), 13–14, 16, 21n.60, 50, 53, 60, 130, 161n.13;

  mental, 137;

  natural, 79, 94, 212;

  psychological, 187, 210;

  resultant, 187, 191–193, 197;

  self-induced, 11;

  short-term (or passing, transient, transitory), 4, 13, 21n.47, 40, 129;

  skillful, 135;

  technique vs., 4, 18, 32, 130;

  trait vs., 13, 40, 187, 196–200;

  trance-like, 112;

  vacuous, 167

  stillness, 14, 29, 67n.26, 169, 172, 187, 191–192, 197, 200

  Śubhacandra, 97–98

  subtle awareness, 15, 48, 53, 58

  subtle body, 37, 71–72, 77–78, 80–82, 87–88, 151, 161n.2

  subtle element, 54, 59–61, 63, 68nn.29, 31, 85

  subtle essence, 51, 52, 58, 59–61

  Sukhmani Sāhib, 113

  śūnyatā, awareness of, 156.

  See also emptiness; void; xū

  sūtra, chanting (or reading) of, 5, 36, 170

  syncretism, 213, 219

  Tài-jí, 8, 18

  tamas, 50, 51, 58, 67n.26, 83

  tanmātra, 51, 52, 58, 59–61, 68n.31

  Tantra, ix, xii, 4, 39, 49, 71–91, 97, 141n.34, 145–161, 179

  technical differences, 40

  technical element (or feature, tool), xi, xiii, 6, 7, 29, 31, 36–38, 227–228

  technique, 1–19, 72, 87, 89, 104, 106, 110, 126, 138, 158;

  ambivalence toward, 5–6;

  apophatic, 186–187, 190–191, 195, 197, 200;

  attention-based, 2, 8, 17;

  state vs. 4, 18, 32, 130;

  (thematic) content vs., x–xi, 1, 11–12, 36–39, 42n.41, 228

  thought control, 96

  thought process, 140n.17

  thoughts, 7, 19n.3, 29, 34, 41n.11, 52, 54, 65, 67n.18, 83, 109;

  accepting (or allowing), 28, 30–32, 35, 42n.11, 234;

  beyond, 35, 65;

  contentless, 235;

  deluded, 32, 34–35, 37, 166, 178;

  digressive, 28, 31, 33–35, 235;

  discursive, 55;

  distractive, 8, 32–34;

  exploring, 34–35;

  flow of, 34;

  freedom from (or lack of, no), 34, 191, 208;

  letting go of, 237;

  logical, 36;

  peripheral, 28, 31–34;

  random, 5, 15–16, 28, 30, 32–34, 172–173, 237;

  reducing (or chopping off, blocking out, abandoning, stilling, terminating, emptying of, quietening, not giving rise to, stopping, calming down, ridding the mind of, excluding, avoiding, suppressing, keeping away, eliminating, restricting, removing, emptying out), 15–16, 28, 31–35, 53, 65, 128, 165, 173, 187, 189–190, 196–197, 200;

  replacing, 231;

  stimulus-independent, 230, 235;

  stray, 234, 237;

  trivial, 189

  TM. See Transcendental Meditation

  trait, 13, 40, 73, 83, 84, 187, 193–196, 198–200.

  See also state (of mind [or consciousness, awareness])

  tranquility, 14, 50–51, 83, 134, 186, 191–192, 194–197, 199–200

  Transcendental Meditation (or TM), 30, 35, 227, 229–230, 232, 234–237, 238n.10

  Transformation. See inner transformation; self-transformation

  Tripurasundarī, 71–73, 76, 84–85

  ultimate reality, 9, 15, 38, 146–147

  universal mechanism, 5–6, 17, 27, 35–37

  universal principle, xii, 146, 208–215, 219, 221n.36;

  awareness of, 210

  Upaniṣads, 48, 62–63, 65, 68n.30

  Upatissa, 124–126, 139n.3

  Uttarajjhayaṇa, 93

  Vācaspati Miśra, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67nn.23–24, 68n.29, 69n.36

  vāhigurū, 103–104, 108–113, 115–116, 118n.29

  via negativa, 38, 201

  vicāra, 48, 53–54, 58–59, 61, 64, 66n.13, 126, 136.

  See also nirvicāra; savicāra

  Vimuttimagga, 124, 139n.3, 141n.26

  vipassanā (or vipaśyanā, Vipassana), 16, 27, 29–31, 35, 40, 98, 122, 127–128, 134, 141n.33, 227, 239n.42

  visualization, x, xii, 1, 5–8, 18, 36–37, 49, 71, 76–77, 84–87, 89, 97, 124–126, 131, 136, 145–147, 158–160

  Visuddhimagga, 124, 139n.3, 141n.26

  vitakka, 126, 136, 141n.24.

  See also vitarka

  vital energy, 82, 87, 186, 188–189, 193.

  See also prāṇa; qì

  vitality, 82, 152, 157, 160–161, 186, 190

  vitarka, 48, 53–55, 58–59, 61, 64, 66nn.12–13.

  See also nirvitarka; savitarka; vitakka

  void, 39, 85–86, 90, 173.

  See also emptiness; śūnyatā; xū

  vṛtti, 53–55, 65, 67nn.18–19

  Vyāsa, 53–58, 64–65

  Wáng Jī, 216, 222nn.41–43

  Wáng Shǒurén, 207, 209, 211–212, 215–216, 220, 221nn.18,28

  watchfulness, 15, 34–35, 114

  Way (Dào), xii, 9, 169, 173, 186–197, 199–200, 201n.7, 213, 219;

  awareness of the, 187, 192, 201n.7

  wisdom, 29, 39, 50, 67n.26, 136, 145, 190–191, 194, 200

  worship, 71–77, 86, 88–90, 91n.5, 103, 105, 108, 114–115, 117n.1, 170

  xū, 186, 191–192, 197.

  See also emptiness; śūnyatā; void

  Xuē Huì, 212, 214, 219

  Xuěyán Zŭqīn, 172, 174

  yantra, x, xii–xiii, 8–9, 11, 37, 71–91, 136, 137, 142n.40.

  See also Śrīyantra

  yoga, ix, xii–xiii, 8, 13, 16, 48–66, 138, 228–234, 238n.5.

  See also Hatha Yoga; Kuṇḍalinī yoga

  Yoga Nidra, 16

  Yogaśāstra, 95, 97–98, 99n.6

  Yoga Sūtras, 48–66, 133

  Yuán Huáng, 217–218, 222n.45

  Yúnqī Zhūhóng, 177–178

  Zhìchè Duànyún, 174–175, 177–178

  Zhuāngzǐ, 185–187, 189–196, 199, 201n.6

  Zhū Xī, 207, 209–212, 214–215, 217–220, 221n.11, 222n.40

  About the Editor

  Halvor Eifring is professor of Chinese at the University of Oslo, where he teaches Chinese language, literature, and culture and currently directs the international research project “Two Thousand Years of Mind Wandering.” He is general secretary of the Acem International School of Meditation.