Nazi Gold
Page 46
Schmidt-Branden, Paul, 45–46
Schmitz, Hermann, 39
Schneeberger, Ernst, 113
Schneider, Heinrich, 296, 298, 300
Schnitzer, Adolf, 124
Schnyder, Felix, 213–14, 218, 219
Schuman, Robert, 252
Schwab, Max, 102–4, 113, 116–19, 122–24, 128, 130–131, 133–34, 173–76, 195, 234, 236
Schwartz, Abba, 203–4, 209
Scrivener, Patrick, 253
Secrecy of Swiss bank accounts, 42–43, 81, 102–4, 109, 110, 117, 131, 208, 238, 297, 345
1962 law and, 277
Securities. See Shares and securities
Seifert, Karl, 256
Selborne, Lord, 86
Selous, Gerald, 115, 117–18, 130, 171, 181, 182, 185, 187
Senate Banking Committee hearings (U.S.), 10–13, 299–305, 311–12, 320–22, 331–32, 335–44
Senate Subcommittee on Immigration, 333
Senegal, 52
Shaftesley, John, 230
Shares and securities, 44, 53, 65, 70, 72, 86, 101, 192, 193, 195–96
Sharett, Moshe, 232
Sholes, Walter, 44–45, 69
Sicherheitsdienst (SD), 37–38
Sief, Israel, 30
Silver, Warren, 143
Simon Wiesenthal Organization, 319
Singer, Israel, 295, 297–301, 305, 307, 327, 332, 345–46
Société Générale de Surveillance (SGS), 223, 302
Sonabend, Charles, 15–17, 25, 26, 27
Sonabend, Lili, 17, 25–26
Sonabend, Sabine, 17
Sonabend, Simon, 17–19, 24–27
Sonabend family, 15–20, 24, 26, 27
South America, 85
Soviet Union, 170, 172, 198, 334, 335, 350
Spain, 56, 85, 139, 140, 233, 340
Speich, Rudolph, 212, 213, 264
Speiser, Ernst, 175, 179, 202
Spira, Julius, 239
SS (Schutzstaffel), 61–62, 66–67, 70, 82
Stampfli, Walter, 57
State Department, U.S., 32, 56, 59, 67–69, 71, 157. See also individual officials
heirless assets issue and, 163–64
Stateless Jews, 99, 119, 120–21, 124, 126, 128, 129, 131, 244–45
Steiger, Eduard von, 24, 25, 27–28, 61, 74, 87, 167, 168, 201, 205–10, 213–15, 218–20, 243, 257
Steinberg, Elan, 295, 298, 300, 302, 303, 306, 307, 309–11, 319, 320, 325
Steinhardt, Ernestine, 285–86
Streuli, Hans, 266
Stucki, Walter, 74–81, 85, 100, 103, 108–10, 112, 113, 122, 174–79, 181–89, 191, 192, 197–204, 248, 254, 257, 262, 263, 274
1946 negotiations and accord and, 132–38, 140–50, 152–56, 163, 164, 168, 169–70, 229
Polish agreement and, 213, 217
revelation concerning heirless
assets by, 271–72
West Germany and, 233–35, 246
Studer, Robert, 311, 325, 331, 332, 333
Sullivan, William, 69, 110–11
Sullivan and Cromwell (law firm), 146
Surrey, Walter, 143
Swann, Robert, 246
Sweden, 55, 76, 147
Swiss Association of Jewish Refugees, 122
Swiss Association of Life Insurance Companies, 253
Swiss Bank Corporation (SBC), 44, 46, 83, 192, 242, 281, 282, 285, 315, 347
Swiss Bankers Association (SBA), 11, 38, 63, 64–65, 69, 80, 101, 133, 165, 177, 189–90, 195, 207, 211, 227, 237–44, 251, 254, 261–64, 271–73, 276, 302. See also Swiss banks
1952 meeting in Bern and, 2, 5–7
1990s developments and, 302, 304–305, 311–13, 315, 322–23
Polish agreement and, 267
Swiss Banking Commission, 256
Swiss banks (Swiss bankers), 42–44, 188. See also Heirless assets; Swiss Bankers Association (SBA); specific banks, and other topics
British accounts in, 81–82
census of assets, 6, 259–60
German-owned assets, 77, 80, 93, 102, 103, 113, 114, 117–18, 130, 131
heirless assets, 188, 189, 204, 207, 212, 227, 228
claims by Jews ignored or rejected by, 110–11
class action suits against, 315, 316, 322, 349
German loot in, 64. See also Gold reserves of Nazi-occupied nations; Switzerland, German assets in
German-owned accounts in, 43–44, 45–46, 78
interest payments on foreign accounts, 175–78
proof of death and heirship required by, 6, 11–12, 163–65
secrecy of accounts, 42–43, 81, 102–4, 109, 110, 117, 131, 208, 238, 297
1962 law and, 277
voluntary self-regulation by, 64–65
during World War II, 43–46
Swiss Compensation Office. See Compensation Office, Swiss
Swiss embassy in Washington, 14
Swiss Federation of Jewish Associations, 162, 190, 207
Swiss Federation of Jewish Communities (SIG), 62, 218, 289, 295
Swiss Foundation for Solidarity, 329
Swiss Jews, 20, 24, 162, 190, 223, 270, 342–43, 344
Swiss Labor Relief Agency, 60–61
Swiss National Bank, 50, 52–53, 55–57, 80, 84, 139–42, 146, 147, 149, 212, 290, 328, 337, 341, 342–43
Switzerland. See also specific officials, government agencies, and other topics
1934 banking secrets law, 18–19
1952 agreement with the Allies, 248–50
advance payment to Jews by, 180–81, 185, 186
American diplomats in, after World War II, 88–90
anti-Semitism in, 343, 344
class action suits by Jews against, 315, 316, 322, 349
deportation of Jewish refugees from, 25–28
dishonesty by, 342–43, 347, 349–50
false prewar dates on coins, 338
German assets in. See German assets in Switzerland
gold reserves of, 56, 329
and heirless assets, 341, 349
incriminating government documents revealed, 342–43
Jewish refugees in, 181, 263
after World War II, 164, 166
during World War II, 21–28, 61, 62, 270
loans to Nazi Germany, 40, 41, 47, 49, 50, 64, 70, 78, 100, 107, 199, 249
Nazi Germany and, 35–41, 43, 45–83
neutrality of, 15, 33–34, 41, 45, 48–49, 57, 64, 76–79, 100–101, 113, 337, 341, 350
sanctions against, 32, 49, 63, 65, 71, 79, 96, 99, 105, 108, 113–15, 130, 131, 135–37, 151, 152, 321, 332, 340, 341, 345
secret SS account in, 341
trade with Nazi Germany, 40–41, 47–50, 54, 56, 69, 74, 76–79, 108, 199
and Washington Accord (1946), 336, 350
Taft, Robert A., 236
Theft
of heirless assets, 260–61, 269, 272
of safe-deposit boxes, 260–61
Thorns, Albert, 139
Thorp, Willard, 197–99, 220, 222
Thurnherr, Walther, 47–50
Tolkowsky, Samuel, 263
Trachsel, Otto, 255–56
Trade agreement
with Czechoslovakia, 227, 229
with Poland, 209–18, 220, 222–26
Trade between Switzerland and Nazi
Germany, 40–41, 46–50, 54, 56, 69, 74, 76–79, 108, 199
Trading with the Enemy Act, 258
Trading with the Enemy Act (U.S.), 163
Treasury Department, U.S., 32, 64, 65, 69
Troendle, Max, 210–12, 214, 216, 227, 229, 262
Troutbeck, Jack, 59, 60, 68, 94, 126–28
Truman, Harry S, 96–97, 131, 339–40
Tull, Thomas, 225
Turkey, 56
Umbricht, Victor, 234
Unclaimed deposits. See Heirless assets
Unclaimed luggage and crates, 180
Union Bank of Switzerland (UBS), 44, 45, 83, 109, 110, 193, 281–84, 315, 325, 331, 332, 343, 345, 348
Unit
ed Kingdom. See Great Britain
United States. See also individual officials, government agencies, and specific topics
freeze of Swiss property in, 109
German assets in, 250, 258
and gold distribution to European banks, 338
Jewish refugees and, 28, 342
state legislatures pass sanctions on Swiss banks, 345
Swiss assets in, 96, 109, 132
during World War II, 40
“U.S. and Allied Efforts to Recover and Restore Gold and Other Assets Stolen or Hidden by Germany During World War II” (Eizenstat report), 335–41
Vaidie, Marcel, 63, 117, 142, 144, 146, 156
Van den Heuvel, Frederick “Fanny,” 36
Vansittart, Lord, 179
Vatican, 352
Vieli, Peter, 45, 115, 130
Villiers, Gerald, 106, 112, 117, 182–83, 197, 200
Villiger, Kaspar, 295, 297, 305
Vincent, John, 224
Vinson, Fred, 135, 152
Volcker, Paul, 314, 318–19, 323, 328, 333, 345
Volksbank, 123
Volkswagen, 335
Von der Heydt, Baron Eduard, 63
Vyvyan, Michael, 95
Wahlen, Friedrich, 268–70, 272, 273, 275, 276
Waldheim, Kurt, 294–95
Waley, Sir David, 98, 99, 126, 129, 160
Warburg, Edward, 181
War Crimes Act (U.K.), 308
Washington, D.C., 1946 negotiations with Switzerland in, 132–56
Washington Accord (1946), 153–56, 187, 191, 196–98, 203, 211, 214, 217, 229, 245, 248–50, 307, 308, 336, 339–40, 350
Washington Post, 134, 310
Weber, Ernst, 52–57, 82, 83, 116, 156
Weber, Hans, 278–88, 290, 291
Wechsler, Herbert, 92
Wedding rings, looted, 82, 91, 126, 203, 307, 337
Wegelin, Alfred, 4
Wehrli, Johann, 71–72
Weigl, Hanusch, 285–86
Weiss family (Hungary), 62
Weisshaus, Gizella, 316
Weissmann, Frederick, 21, 111
Weizmann, Chaim, 97, 126–28
West Germany, 203, 233–35, 245–49, 257
German assets in the United States and, 258
Israel and, 252, 258
Westminster Bank, 44
White, Harry Dexter, 30, 71, 88, 90, 115, 203, 258
Wiesel, Elie, 11
Wilcke, Maria, 183
Winant, John, 140, 141
Witten, Roger, 302, 312
Wohlin, Lydia, 236
World Economic Forum, 327
World Jewish Congress (WJC), 11, 28, 164, 206, 230, 250, 275, 294–95, 300, 306–10, 319, 320, 323, 332, 345, 346. See also Bronfman, Edgar
World Jewish Restitution Organization, 296
Yugoslavia, 139, 160
Zehnder, Alfred, 147, 213, 224, 225, 227, 232, 239–41, 251, 264
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The impetus for this book was a telephone call in May 1996 from two friends, Mike Kinsella and Bob Royer. Kinsella, the chief of staff of Senator Alfonse D’Amato, and Royer, a Washington, D.C., lawyer, were searching in the National Archives for information about Swiss banks to use in the early stages of the senator’s campaign. Their support and generosity thereafter were unlimited. Martin Mendelsohn arranged through the Simon Wiesenthal Center for funding for my initial visit and research. Gregg Rickman, Senator D’Amato’s legislative director, has undoubtedly served as the tower of strength for the senator’s campaign and was an enormous and indispensable help to me.
Robert Fink, my indefatigable and resourceful associate in New York, was, as always, invaluable, not least in several archives in New York, Washington, D.C., and elsewhere, and for tracking down important eyewitnesses.
In Switzerland, Mario Koenig spent ten weeks in the national archives and not only produced astonishing new material but provided incisive interpretation. I am very grateful to him and to others who unfortunately must remain nameless. Thanks to the original journalism of Irene Loebell of Swiss Television, I was better able to understand this story and Switzerland.
In Paris, Jane Lizop overcame the chaos of the French national archives—which are magnificently designed but are managed in such a way as to prevent proper research—and produced some absolute gems.
Among the many others who gave me valuable help are Moses Abramovitz, Edwin Adams, Morton Bach, Rolf Bloch, Herbert Cummings, Martin Doude van Trostwick, Eli Ginzberg, Max Isenbergh, Paul Jolles, Nat King, Ida Klaus, Paul Rechsteiner, Seymour Rubin, Hans Schaffner, Elan Steinberg and Israel Singer of the World Jewish Congress, Jacob Tanner, Gian Trepp and Herbert Winter. I received considerable but unattributable help from many Swiss bankers and government officials.
Peter James performed his unique magic in editing the manuscript; David Hooper of Biddle & Co. declared the book to be legally watertight; Anne-Marie Ehrlich found the photographs; and Diana Mackay, who sold the foreign rights, and Michael Shaw of Curtis Brown were, as always, great friends and supporters. To all, I am very grateful.
Most of all, I am grateful to my family, who never complain, always laugh and never cease to offer encouragement.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Tom Bower (b. 1946) is a British writer and investigative journalist. A former reporter for BBC’s Panorama, his books include unauthorized biographies of Tiny Rowland, Robert Maxwell, Mohamed Al-Fayed, Geoffrey Robinson, Gordon Brown, and Richard Branson. He won the 2003 William Hill Sports Book of the Year Award for Broken Dreams, an investigation into corruption in English football.
All rights reserved, including without limitation the right to reproduce this ebook or any portion thereof in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of the publisher.
Copyright © 1997 by Tom Bower
Cover design by Amanda Shaffer
ISBN: 978-1-5040-4324-3
This edition published in 2017 by Open Road Integrated Media, Inc.
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TOM BOWER
FROM OPEN ROAD MEDIA
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