Never Been a Time

by Harper Barnes

  20. Rudwick, Race Riot, 119–20; Defender, Oct. 20, 1917.

  21. Journal, Oct. 6, 18–19, 1916. See also Rudwick, “Colonization Conspiracy.”

  22. GD, Oct. 26, 30, 1916.

  23. Rudwick, Race Riot, 136; Journal, Nov. 9, 1916.

  24. Congressional Hearings, 579; Rudwick, “Colonization Conspiracy,” 39.

  25. Military Board of Inquiry, 20–23.

  CHAPTER 6: THE MAY RIOT

  1. Congressional Hearings, 616, 1173.

  2. Ibid., 3787–90.

  3. Ibid., 3638; Journal, Feb. 15–25, 1917.

  4. Ottley, The Lonely Warrior, 162–72.

  5. Tuttle, Red Summer, 90.

  6. Congressional Hearings, 1025–26.

  7. Ibid., 1531.

  8. Rudwick, Race Riot, 18–23; Foner and Lewis, Black Worker, vol. 5, 284. McLaughlin, Power, Community, and Racial Killing, 16.

  9. Sinclair, The Jungle, 123–24.

  10. Ibid.

  11. Journal, March 27, 1917; Congressional Hearings, 1792–98.

  12. Brecher, Strike!, 115–19; Bing, War-Time Strikes, 7–9, 293.

  13. Foner and Lewis, Black Workers, 288; Lewis, Biography of a Race, 419–20.

  14. Journal, March 30, 1917.

  15. Congressional Hearings, 3511.

  16. Theising, Made in USA, 142–44; Report of Special Committee Authorized by Congress, 10–11.

  17. Rudwick, Race Riot, 187–88.

  18. PD, Nov. 19, 1917; Congressional Hearings, 3508–27.

  19. Journal, April 4, 1917; Congressional Hearings, 3564–65, 3723.

  20. Journal, April 14, 1917.

  21. Congressional Hearings, 4073, 4102.

  22. Journal, April 19, 1917.

  23. Rudwick, Race Riot, 18–23; Journal, April 26, 1917.

  24. Journal, May 11, 1917.

  25. Ibid., May 14–16; Congressional Hearings, 3125.

  26. New Orleans Times-Picayune, April 27–29, 1917.

  27. Congressional Hearings, 1999, 2055, 4185.

  28. Ottley, The Lonely Warrior, 161.

  29. Rudwick, Race Riot, 160–70; Congressional Hearings, 1026–42, 1710. See also introduction, note 7.

  30. Analysis by author. Also see Rudwick, Race Riot, 8–9, 213–15.

  31. Journal, May 24–25, 1917; Congressional Hearings, 3525.

  32. Journal, May 25–28, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 27–28; Congressional Hearings, 3121, 3141, 2569, 2401.

  33. Journal, May 28, 1917.

  34. Rudwick, Race Riot, 27–35.

  35. Congressional Hearings, 2875.

  36. Ibid., 3126–93.

  37. Ibid., 3824; Flannigen obituary, Journal, May 12, 1926.

  38. Congressional Hearings, 1916, 4310–18.

  39. Rudwick, Race Riot, 28–30.

  40. Congressional Hearings, 3882, 2028–32.

  41. Ibid., 3125–27, 3155.

  42. See Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, chap. 3.

  43. PD, Journal, Republic, May 29–30, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 27–32.

  44. Congressional Hearings, 3375–80.

  45. Ibid., 2240–45.

  46. Rudwick, Race Riot, 28–33.

  47. Congressional Hearings, 1418–20.

  48. Ibid., 1346–50.

  49. Journal, PD, May 29–31, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 30–33.

  50. Journal, May 29, 1917; Argus, June 1, 1917.

  51. PD, May 29–30, 1917.

  CHAPTER 7: SHOTS IN THE DARK

  1. Journal, June 4, 1917.

  2. Ibid., June 8–10, 1917.

  3. Report to the Illinois State Council of Defense, 1–6.

  4. Journal, June 18, 22, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 36–39.

  5. The Trial of Leroy Bundy, 765, 796–99, 824–25; Congressional Hearings, 686.

  6. Congressional Hearings, 1078–80.

  7. Ibid., 2060–61, 1355–57.

  8. Journal, June 11, 1917.

  9. Congressional Hearings, 2369.

  10. Ibid., 686, 1350; Rudwick, Race Riot, 37.

  11. Congressional Hearings, 3527–30.

  12. The Trial of Leroy Bundy, 732–35; Congressional Hearings, 1107; Rudwick, Race Riot, 38–39.

  13. Congressional Hearings, 1138–40.

  14. Ibid., 1105–19.

  15. Ibid., 674, 1064–70; Rudwick, Race Riot, 38.

  16. The Trial of Leroy Bundy, 752, 770–72; Congressional Hearings, 1106–9.

  17. Congressional Hearings, 1106–9.

  18. Ibid., 1065–76, 673.

  19. Ibid., 477–82.

  20. Roy Albertson obituary, Journal, July 28, 1960. Note on Frank Wodley’s name: In his 1964 book on the riots, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917, sociologist Elliott Rudwick spells Wodley’s name “Wadley” throughout. But the name is spelled “Wodley” in the 1916 East St. Louis city directory, and the, St. Louis Post-Dispatch and, Globe–Democrat spelled the name with an “o” consistently, from the riot in July of 1917 through the trials that stretched from the fall of 1917 to the spring of 1922. The, East St. Louis Journal, in its initial coverage of the riot, spelled the name “Wadley,” but by the time of its coverage of indictments and trials growing out of the riot in the fall of 1917 it had changed the spelling to “Wodley.” See, for example, Journal riot indictment stories on Sept. 26 and 30 and Oct. 1, 1917.

  21. Congressional Hearings, 477–78.

  22. The Trial of Leroy Bundy, 353–56; Rudwick, Race Riot, 39.

  23. Congressional Hearings, 479–82. See also, The Trial of Leroy Bundy, 354–55, 364–65, 385–86.

  24. Congressional Hearings, 546–65, 1233.

  25. Congressional Hearings, 480–81. See also, Republic, July 2, 1917.

  26. Congressional Hearings, 589–92, 3390.

  27. Ibid., 3546–47, 4089.

  28. Ibid., 589–92.

  29. Ibid., 484.

  30. Ibid., 485.

  31. Ibid., 1140–42.

  32. Ibid., 505.

  33. Ibid., 756.

  34. Ibid., 2039–41.

  35. Republic, July 2, 1917.

  36. Argus, July 6, 1917.

  CHAPTER 8: THE JULY RIOT BEGINS

  1. Congressional Hearings, 250–51.

  2. Anderson obituaries, NYT, PD, Dec. 7, 8, 1938; PD, Dec. 14, 2003; Military Board of Inquiry, Anderson testimony, 319.

  3. Congressional Hearings, 403–5.

  4. Republic, Journal, July 3, 1917.

  5. Congressional Hearings, 757, 809, 823; Tripp obituary, Peoria Star, Nov. 2, 1938.

  6. Congressional Hearings, 591; Rudwick, Race Riot, 81–86.

  7. Congressional Hearing, 753–57; Rudwick, Race Riot, 41.

  8. Report of the Special Committee, 20–22; Journal, Aug. 15, 1917.

  9. Military Board of Inquiry, Clayton testimony, 1–15; Klauser testimony, 2–3. Congressional Hearings, 486, 494–95, 509; Report of the Special Committee, 20–22; Rudwick, Race Riot, 82–83.

  10. For troop arrivals, see Military Board of Inquiry, Report to Adjutant Gieneral, 10, and Exhibit D.

  11. Congressional Hearings, 486.

  12. Ibid., 407–10.

  13. Ibid., 683–85. Much of the information on Richard Brockway comes from coverage of his trial, PD, Journal, Nov. 13–25, 1917.

  14. PD, Nov. 14, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 41, 106–8.

  15. Congressional Hearings, 1110.

  16. Ibid., 2039–41.

  17. Ibid., 3653.

  18. Ibid., 388.

  19. Journal, PD, Nov. 14, 1917.

  20. Except as noted, descriptions of the riot come from, Journal and, PD, July 2–4, 1917, and, GD and, Republic, July 2–5, 1917.

  21. Military Board of Inquiry, Report to Adjutant General, 16–17. Congressional Hearings, 109–10.

  22. Congressional Hearings, 253.

  23. Ibid., 1359–62.

  24. Ibid., 250–60, 591.

  25. Military Board of Inquiry, Mollman testimony, 40–45.

  26. Congressional Hearings, 576
.

  27. Ibid., 1071–80.

  28. Ibid., 269.

  29. Ibid., 862–78.

  30. Ibid., 924–25.

  31. Ibid., 623–25.

  32. Ibid., 3099.

  33. Ibid., 260–67.

  34. Ibid., 3385.

  35. For a detailed discussion of the “emergent norm” situation in the East St. Louis riot, see McLaughlin, “Reconsidering the East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917,” 203–9.

  CHAPTER 9: “THIS WAS THE APOCALYPSE”

  1. Congressional Hearings, 118–23; Roger obituary, Journal, June 2, 1953.

  2. Congressional Hearings, 112–23, 999–1003; Military Board of Inquiry, Roger testimony, 204–11.

  3. Congressional Hearings, 766.

  4. Argus, July 6, 1917.

  5. Congressional Hearings, 488–92, 210–12, 232–38.

  6. Ibid., 412.

  7. Ibid., 250–60.

  8. Letters from Carlos Hurd to Katherine Cordell Hurd, July 1917, courtesy of Ernest Stadler, in possession of author. Carlos Hurd obituaries, PD, NYT, June 9, 1950. See also Carlos Hurd and Frances Hurd Stadler files at the Missouri Historical Society and Gillespie, The Titanic Man. For troop arrivals, see Military Board of Inquiry, Report to Adjutant General, 10, and Exhibit D.

  9. Congressional Hearings, 490–92.

  10. Baker, Josephine, chap. 1, especially 1–3.

  11. Congressional Hearings, 1072–80.

  12. Ibid., 3100.

  13. Ibid., 775–80.

  14. Ibid., 1150–60.

  15. Ibid., 1056–58, 2041, 2462.

  16. Ibid., 3707–79.

  17. Ibid., 106–16.

  CHAPTER 10: A DRAMA OF DEATH

  1. PD, July 3, 1917.

  2. Congressional Hearings, 1389–99.

  3. Ibid., 109–10.

  4. Ibid., 576.

  5. PD, July 3, 1917.

  6. Congressional Hearings, 263–70.

  7. Ibid., 3658.

  8. PD, July 3, 1917.

  9. Congressional Hearings, 578.

  10. Ibid., 402, 413–14.

  11. Ibid., 492–95.

  12. GD, July 3, 1917.

  13. Congressional Hearings, 2868.

  14. Ibid., 778–81.

  15. Military Board of Inquiry, Report to Adjutant General, 10, and Exhibit D; Congressional Hearings, 778–83.

  16. Congressional Hearings, 1309–16; PD, Oct. 27, 1917.

  17. Interviews with Terry and Gary Kennedy in St. Louis, Nov. 16, 20, 2007.

  18. Congressional Hearings, 1420–31.

  19. Ibid., 1695–98.

  20. Republic, July 3, 1917; Argus, July 6, 1917.

  21. PD, July 3, 1917.

  22. Ibid.

  23. Congressional Hearings, 267, 597.

  24. Military Board of Inquiry, Fekete testimony, 23–24; Congressional Hearings, 592–97.

  25. Congressional Hearings, 780–84.

  26. PD, July 3, 1917.

  27. Congressional Hearings, 384–87, 395–99.

  28. Ibid., 1360–62.

  29. Ibid., 857.

  30. Markham, Bovard of the Post–Dispatch, 70, 135–36.

  31. Letters from Carlos Hurd to Katherine Cordell Hurd, July 1917, courtesy of Ernest Stadler, in possession of author.

  CHAPTER 11: LEGACY OF A MASSACRE

  1. Congressional Hearings, 933–65.

  2. Military Board of Inquiry, Report to Adjutant General, 10, and Exhibit D.

  3. Rudwick, Race Riot, 52–53; Congressional Hearings, 1305–13; PD, Oct. 27, 1917.

  4. Congressional Hearings, 285–91, 1259–65, 1373–80.

  5. Ibid., 1144–45, 1190–97.

  6. Ibid., 1211–25.

  7. Journal, July 5–6, 1917; Schmidt, Red Scare, 67–68.

  8. Rudwick, Race Riot, 4, 49–50; “Mississippi rarely returns what currents snatch away,” PD, March 29, 2002.

  9. Rudwick, Race Riot, 49–50; Congressional Hearings, 271; Report of the Special Committee Authorized by Congress, 4; Argus, July 6, 1917; Crisis, Sept. 1917; PD, Aug. 15, 1917.

  10. Congressional Hearings, 3636.

  11. Ibid., 3710–15.

  12. Ibid., 1947–61, 2616.

  13. Ibid., 499–500, 539.

  14. Wells–Barnett, Crusade for Justice, 383–85.

  15. Foner and Lewis, The Black Worker, vol. 5, 307.

  16. GD, July 5, 1917.

  17. Wells–Barnett, A Black Holocaust, 1–6; Wells–Barnett, Crusade for Justice, 383–95.

  18. PD, NYT, July 7, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 134.

  19. NYT, July 5, 1917.

  20. Chicago Tribune, GD, July 4, 1917.

  21. Rudwick, Race Riot, 58–62.

  22. Atlanta Constitution, reprinted, GD, July 5, 1917.

  23. NYT, July 17, 1917.

  24. Survey, Aug. 18, 1917, 447–48.

  25. Ridge, The Ghetto and Other Poems, 80–81.

  26. Journal, July 5, 1917.

  27. Survey, July 14, 1917, 331–33.

  28. Congressional Hearings, 2039.

  29. Rudwick, Race Riot, 95–106.

  30. Lewis, Biography of a Race, 536–40; Argus, July 13, 1917.

  31. Du Bois, Oxford W. E. B. Du Bois Reader, 525–26.

  32. “The Massacre of East St. Louis,” Crisis, Sept. 1917.

  33. Crisis, March, 1918.

  34. NYT, July 29, 1917; Lewis, Biography of a Race, 539; Bundles, On Her Own Ground, 206–7; Rudwick, Race Riot, 134–35.

  35. Morrison, Jazz, 53–54.

  36. Bundles, On Her Own Ground, 205–12, 270–72.

  37. Schmidt, Red Scare, 67–68.

  38. Bundles, On Her Own Ground,, 208–9; Argus, July 13 and Aug. 10, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 138; Kellogg, NAACP, 221–32.

  39. Rudwick, Race Riot, 96–98; PD, Aug. 15–19 and Sept. 9, 1917; Journal, Aug. 13–19 and Sept. 9–13, 1917.

  40. PD, Journal, Aug. 15, 1917; Report of the Grand Jury, 3.

  41. Report of the Grand Jury, 1–7.

  42. Congressional Hearings, 3636.

  43. PD, Journal, July 3, 1917; McLaugllin, Power. Community, and Racial Killing, 187; Journal, July 12, 13, 1921.

  44. Journal, Aug. 17, 1917.

  45. PD, Aug. 15, 1917. “Brockway, Richard,” Biographical Sketch Index, Belleville Public Library, Belleville, Ill. People v. Richard Brockway, et al. Note: The transcript of the Brockway trial along with many other transcripts from the period of the riot were shredded when the St. Clair County Circuit Court moved to a new building in 1971. Some pre- and post–trial motions and similar records remain.

  46. Journal, July 20, 1911; PD, Nov. 2, 1917; Congressional Hearings, 280–81.

  47. PD, GD, Journal, Aug. 19, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 96–97.

  48. Journal, Aug. 23, 1917.

  49. Haynes, A Night of Violence, 57–60.

  50. Ibid., 83.

  51. Ibid., 86.

  52. Ibid., 296–304.

  53. Lewis, Biography of a Race, 539–44; Berg, The Ticket to Freedom, 23; Kellogg, NAACP, 225; Garvey, “The Conspiracy of the East St. Louis Riots,” 300–301.

  54. Bundles, On Her Own Ground, 212, 270–72.

  CHAPTER 12: JUDGMENT DAYS

  1. Argus, Oct. 5, 1917.

  2. PD, Oct. 1–8, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 112–15.

  3. PD, Oct. 8–13; GD, Oct. 9–14; Rudwick, Race Riot, 102–32.

  4. PD, Oct. 18–19, 1917; Journal, Oct. 16–18, 1917.

  5. PD, Oct. 18, 1917.

  6. PD, Oct. 23, 1917.

  7. PD Journal, Nov. 13–27, 1917.

  8. Journal, Dec. 9, 1917.

  9. Ibid., Feb. 6, 1918; Argus, Feb. 8, 1918; Rudwick, Race Riot, 98–99.

  10. Rudwick, Race Riot, 95–106.

  11. Congressional Hearings, 3649.

  12. PD, Oct. 18, 1917.

  13. Congressional Hearings, 125–40, 4185–90.

  14. Ibid., 1855.

  15. PD, Oct. 29, Nov. 10, 1917.

  16. Congressional Hearings,
1866–70, 1902–6, 3532–34; PD, Nov. 6, 1917.

  17. PD, Nov. 8, 9, 1917.

  18. Congressional Hearings, 3248–78, 3300, 3344, 3390; PD, Nov. 8, 1917.

  19. Report of the Special Committee, 1–10.

  20. Congressional Hearings, 1229; Rudwick, Race Riot, 50.

  21. Report of the Special Committee, 11–24.

  22. GD, Journal, Oct. 12–14, 1917; PD, March 20, 1919; Rudwick, Race Riot, 119–23.

  23. Journal, Nov. 26, 1917; Rudwick, Race Riot, 188–90.

  24. Du Bois, “Leroy Bundy,” 16–21; Rudwick, Race Riot, 122–23.

  25. Du Bois, “Leroy Bundy,” 19–21; Rudwick, Race Riot, 123; Defender, Sept. 14, 1918.

  26. PD, March 20–28, 1919.

  27. The Trial of Leroy Bundy, 251–303; PD, March 21, 1919.

  28. The Trial of Leroy Bundy, 861–83, 994–1062, 1106–32.

  29. PD, March 28, 1919; Rudwick, Race Riot, 122–31; Bundy obituary, Journal, June 8, 1943.

  30. Du Bois, “Leroy Bundy,” 16; NYT, June 9, 1936.

  31. Rudwick, Race Riot, 165.–(J)”

  32. GD, April 5, 1918.

  33. NYT, July 27, 1918; Kellogg, NAACP, 228.

  34. Franklin, “The Philadelphia Race Riot of 1918,” 316–28; NYT, July 29, 1918.

  35. Johnson, Writings, 511–12.

  36. Tuskegee Lynching Statistics, Tuttle, Red Summer, 14; NYT, Oct. 5, 1919.

  37. Johnson, Writings, 512–13; Tuttle, Red Summer, 14; Henri, Black Migration, 321.

  38. “Race Riot of 1919 Gave Glimpse of Future Struggles,” Washington Post, March 1, 1999.

  39. Tuttle, Red Summer, 3–10, 75–76, 238–40.

  40. Crisis, Sept. 1919.

  41. Berg, The Ticket to Freedom, 23; NAACP, Thirty Years of Lynching, 5–8.

  42. Johnson, Writings, 530–50.

  43. NYT, June 14, 19, 2005.

  44. Hirsch, Riot and Remembrance, 38, 77–113, 117–19.

  CHAPTER 13: THE DEAL WITH THE DEVIL

  1. Congressional Hearings, 3202; Rudwick, Race Riot, 161.

  2. McLaughlin, Power, Community, and Racial Killing, 10–11; Tuttle, Red Summer, 76; Rudwick, Race Riot, 165–66, 217–18; Congressional Hearings, 1850–51.

  3. Theising, Made in USA, 144.

  4. Congressional Hearings, 3222–23.

  5. Congressional Hearings, 4075–82.

  6. Military Board of Inquiry, Report to Adjutant General, 5; Mollman testimony, 21. Rudwick, Race Riot, 213–15.