Never Been a Time

by Harper Barnes

  7. Congressional Hearings, 4075–82.

  8. Rudwick, Race Riot, 190–96; St. Louis license statistics courtesy of Adele Heagney, reference librarian, St. Louis Public Library.

  9. Journal, Sept. 19, 1921.

  10. Ibid., 280–307; PD, Nov. 1, 1917.

  11. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, 124 and chap. 3.

  12. Ibid., 117.

  13. McLaughlin, “Reconsidering the East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917,” 205–7.

  14. Congressional Hearings, 489.

  15. McLaughlin, “Reconsidering the East St. Louis Race Riot,” 206–7.

  16. Ibid., 207–9.

  17. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, 116–17.

  18. Krikler, “Inner Mechanics,” 1051–75.

  19. De Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 357.

  20. Du Bois, “Leroy Bundy,” 170.

  21. Bing, War–time Strikes, 7–9, 293; Morison, Oxford History, 858–59.

  22. Arendt, On Revolution, 9.

  EPILOGUE: THE EAST ST. LOUIS BLUES

  1. Townsend, A Blues Life, 14–15.

  2. PD, Feb. 4, 1952.

  3. Baker, Speech at Kiel Opera House.

  4. Turner, I, Tina, 44–46.

  5. Interview by the author with Eugene Redmond, East St. Louis, Jan. 18, 2006.

  6. Theising, Made in USA, 13, 196. Some information on population and racial trends in East St. Louis comes from the East St. Louis Action Research Project of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, http://www.eslarp.uiuc.edu.

  7. Donloe, Katherine Dunham, particularly 165–86.

  8. Los Angeles Times, Aug. 11, 2005.

  9. PD, Sept. 11–15, 1967.

  10. Interview by the author with Anne Walker, East St. Louis, Nov. 7, 2007.

  11. Kozol, Savage Inequalities, 7–39.

  12. Joyner–Kersee, A Kind of Grace, 14–15.

  13. Kramer, “An Olympic Champion Comes Home,” 40–47. Some information on the center comes from the Jackie Joyner–Kersee Foundation.

  14. Interviews by the author with Terry and Gary Kennedy, St. Louis, Nov. 16, 20, 2007.

  15. PD, June 20, 2001.

  16. Theising, Made in USA, 223.

  17. Interview by the author with Anne Walker, East St. Louis, Nov. 7, 2007. For Illinois Riot and Reparations Commission legislation, see Senate Joint Resolution 0044, Ninety–fifth General Assembly, at http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/.

  18. PD, May 22, June 23, 2006.

  19. PD, March 21, 2006.

  20. PD, May 11, July 8, 2007.

  Bibliography

  PRINCIPAL NEWSPAPER SOURCES

  Chicago Defender (Defender)

  East St. Louis Daily Journal (Journal)

  New York Times (NYT)

  St. Louis Argus (Argus)

  St. Louis Globe-Democrat (GD)

  St. Louis Post-Dispatch (PD)

  St. Louis Republic (Republic)

  BOOKS AND LARGE COLLECTIONS OF FILES

  Acquiviva, Mike. Guide to “The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917.” Printed guide accompanies eight reels of microfilm. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985. See The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917.

  Arendt, Hannah. On Revolution. A Compass Book. New York: Viking Press, 1965.

  Arnesen, Eric. Brotherhoods of Color: Black Rail Workers and the Struggle for Equality. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001.

  Baker, Josephine, and Jo Bouillon. Josephine. New York: Marlowe and Company, 1998.

  Baker, Ray Stannard. Following the Color Line: American Negro Citizenship in the Progressive Era. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.

  Baldwin, James. The Fire Next Time. New York: Vintage, 1993.

  Benedict, Ruth. Race: Science and Politics. New York: Viking Press, 1950.

  Berg, Manfred. The Ticket to Freedom: The NAACP and the Struggle for Black Political Integration. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2005.

  Berry, Chuck. Chuck Berry: The Autobiography. New York: Harmony Books, 1987.

  Bing, Alexander M. War-Time Strikes and Their Adjustment. New York: Dutton, 1921.

  Bontemps, Arna, and Jack Conroy. Anyplace But Here. (Originally called They Seek a City, 1966, 1945.) Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1997.

  Bracey, John H., with August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, eds. Black Workers and Organized Labor. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing, 1971.

  Brecher, Jeremy. Strike! Boston: South End Press, 1997.

  Bundles, A’Lelia. On Her Own Ground: The Life and Times of Madam C. J. Walker. New York: Scribner, 2001.

  Cha-Jua, Sundiata Keita. America’s First Black Town: Brooklyn, Illinois 1830–1915. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000.

  Congressional Hearings. Reels 1–5 of The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917. Edited by Elliott M. Rudwick. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985.

  Cottrell, Robert C. Roger Nash Baldwin and the American Civil Liberties Union. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.

  Davis, Miles, with Quincy Troupe. Miles: The Autobiography. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989.

  Daniels, Josephus. The Life of Woodrow Wilson. Philadelphia: Winston, 1924.

  Department of Justice (Bureau of Investigation) files on the East St. Louis riot of 1917: Glasser File: Records Relating to a Study of the Use of Force in Internal Disturbances by the Federal Government, 1915–1949. Central Files, 1904–1967: File number 186835, Correspondence on the East St. Louis Riot of 1917. National Archives, College Park, Md.

  De Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. Translated by George Lawrence. Edited by J. P. Mayer. New York: HarperCollins Perennial Classics, 1988.

  Directory of East St. Louis. East St. Louis: Carroll, 1893, 1916, 1918, and 1921.

  Directory of St. Louis. St. Louis: Polk, 1917.

  Donald, Henderson H. The Negro Migration of 1916–1918. Washington, D.C.: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1921.

  Donloe, Darlene. Katherine Dunham. Los Angeles: Melrose Square Publishing, 1993.

  Douglass, Frederick. Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, Written by Himself. New York: Collier Books, 1962.

  Du Bois, W. E. B. Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880. New York: Free Press, 1998.

  ———. The Oxford W. E. B. Du Bois Reader. Edited by Erica J. Sundquist. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

  ———. The Seventh Son: The Thought and Writings of W. E. B. Du Bois. Edited by Julius Lester. New York: Random House, 1971.

  ———. The Souls of Black Folk. Mattituck, N.Y.: Amereon House, 1994.

  ———. The Philadelphia Negro. New York: Lippincott, 1899. Available at the Pfeiffer University Web site at http://www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/DuBois/pntoc.html.

  ———. Writings. New York: Library of America, 1986.

  Early, Gerald, ed. Ain’t but a Place: An Anthology of African American Writings About St. Louis. St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1998.

  The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985. Edited by Elliott M. Rudwick. Eight microfilm reels include five reels of testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Select Committee to Investigate Conditions in Missouri and Illinois Interfering with Interstate Commerce Between These States, which investigated the 1917 race riot in East St. Louis. The hearings were held in East St. Louis in October and November of 1917. Also included are a draft of the final report of the committee, the report of the military board of inquiry investigating conduct of soldiers during the riot, the full transcript of the trial of Dr. Leroy Bundy, and many other documents relating to the riot.

  Epstein, Abraham, The Negro Migrant in Pittsburgh. New York: Arno Press, 1969.

  Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. New York: Harper & Row, 1988.

  Foner, Philip S., and Ronald L. Lewis. The Black Worker: A Documentary History from Colonial Times to the Present. Vol. 5. From 1900 to
1919. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978.

  Foner, Philip S., and Ronald L. Lewis. Black Workers: A Documentary History from Colonial Times to the Present. (Abridged version of multivolume edition above.) Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989.

  Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000.

  Gillespie, Vera and John. The Titanic Man: Carlos F. Hurd. Mattituck, N.Y.: Amereon House, 1995.

  Godshalk, David Fort. Veiled Visions: The 1906 Atlanta Race Riot and the Remaking of American Race Relations. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.

  Goggin, Jacqueline. Carter G. Woodson: A Life in Black History. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993.

  Groh, George W. The Black Migration: The Journey to Urban America. New York: Wey-bright and Talley, 1972.

  Hagedorn, Ann. Beyond the River: The Untold Story of the Heroes of the Black Underground. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.

  Handy, W. C. Father of the Blues. New York: Macmillan, 1943.

  Harlan, Louis R. Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975.

  Harlan, Louis R. Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901–1915. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

  Harlan, Louis R., ed. The Booker T. Washington Papers. Vol. 3. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974.

  Hasse, John Edward. Beyond Category: The Life and Genius of Duke Ellington. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.

  Haynes, Robert V. A Night of Violence: The Houston Riot of 1917. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1976.

  Henri, Florette. Black Migration: Movement North, 1900–1920. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1975.

  Hirsch, James S. Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002.

  Horrigan, Kevin. The Right Kind of Heroes: Coach Bob Shannon and the East St. Louis Flyers. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books, 1992.

  Horowitz, Donald L. The Deadly Ethnic Riot. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.

  Jaspin, Elliot. Buried in the Bitter Waters: The Hidden History of Racial Cleansing in America. New York: Basic Books, 2007.

  Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia. New York: Library of America, 1984.

  Johnson, James Weldon. Writings. New York: Library of America, 2004.

  Joyner-Kersee, Jackie. A Kind of Grace: The Autobiography of the World’s Greatest Female Athlete. New York: Warner Books, 1997.

  Kellogg, Charles Flint. NAACP: A History of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1967.

  Kelly, Frank K. The Fight for the White House: The Story of 1912. New York: Crowell, 1961.

  Kozol, Jonathan. Savage Inequalities. New York: Crown, 1991.

  Lahs-Gonzalez, Olivia, ed. Josephine Baker: Image and Icon. St. Louis: Reedy Press, 2006.

  Lemann, Nicholas. The Promised Land: The Great Migration and How It Changed America. New York: Vintage Books, 1992.

  Lemann, Nicholas. Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006.

  Lewis, David Levering. W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919. New York: Henry Holt, 1993.

  Lincoln, Abraham. The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Edited by Roy P. Basler. Vol. 1. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1953.

  Logan, Rayford W. The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir, 1877–1901. New York: Dial Press, 1954.

  Markham, James W. Bovard of the Post-Dispatch. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1954.

  Marx, Karl. The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. Based on the third edition, prepared by Friedrich Engels. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1937. Available at www.marxists.org/Archive.

  McCombs, William Frank. Making Woodrow Wilson President. New York: Fairview, 1921.

  McGruder, Aaron, and Reginald Hudlin. Birth of a Nation. Illustrated by Kyle Baker. New York: Crown Publishers, 2004.

  McLaughlin, Malcolm. Power, Community, and Racial Killing in East St. Louis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.

  McMurry, Linda O. To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells. New York, Oxford University Press, 1998.

  Military Board of Inquiry, Reports and Testimony. Reel 6 of The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917. Edited by Elliott M. Rudwick. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985.

  Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Oxford History of the American People. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.

  Morrison, Toni. Jazz. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992.

  Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944.

  National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States, 1889–1918, New York: NAACP, 1919.

  Ottley, Roi. The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott. Chicago: H. Reg-nery Co., 1955.

  Primm, James Neal. Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri. St. Louis: Western Urban History Series. 1990, paperback, second ed.

  Report of the Grand Jury of St. Clair County, Illinois, August 14, 1917. Reel 7 of The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917. Edited by Elliott M. Rudwick. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985.

  Report of the Special Committee Authorized by Congress to Investigate the East St. Louis Race Riot. “The East St. Louis Riots,” House of Representatives Document No. 1231. Sixty-fifth Congress, Second Session, July 15, 1918, 1–24.

  Report to the Illinois State Council of Defense on the Race Riots at East St. Louis by the Committee on Labor. Reel 7 of The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917. Edited by Elliott M. Rudwick. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985.

  Ridge, Lola. The Ghetto and Other Poems. New York: Huebsch, 1918.

  Roediger, David. Working Toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White. New York: Basic Books, 2005.

  Rudwick, Elliott M. Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917. Cleveland and New York: World Publishing, 1966.

  Sandweiss, Lee Ann, ed. Seeking St. Louis: Voices from a River City, 1670–2000. St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 2000.

  Schecter, Barnet. The Devil’s Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America. New York: Walker & Company, 2005.

  Schmidt, Regin. Red Scare: The FBI and the Origins of Anti-Communism in the United States. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 2000.

  Scott, Emmett J. Negro Migration During the War. New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1920, 1969.

  Senechal, Roberta. The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois in 1908. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990.

  Sinclair, Upton. The Jungle. New York: Penguin Books, 1985.

  Smith, Gene. When the Cheering Stopped: The Last Years of Woodrow Wilson. New York: Morrow, 1964.

  Smith McKoy, Sheila. When Whites Riot: Writing Race and Violence in American and South African Cultures. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001.

  Spero, Sterling D., and Abram L. Harris. The Black Worker. New York: Atheneum, 1968.

  Theising, Andrew J. Made in USA: East St. Louis: The Rise and Fall of an Industrial River Town. St. Louis: Virginia Publishing Co., 2003.

  Thompson, Mildred I. Ida B. Wells-Barnett: An Exploratory Study of an American Black Woman, 1893–1930. Brooklyn: Carlson Publishing, 1990.

  Tolnay, Stewart E., and Em. M. Beck. A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882–1930. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995.

  Townsend, Henry, as told to Bill Greensmith. A Blues Life. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999.

  The Trial of Leroy Bundy. Reels 7–8 of The East St. Louis Race Riot of 1917. Edited by Elliott M. Rudwick. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985.

  Trotter, Joe William Jr., and Eric Ledell Smith, eds. African Americ
ans in Pennsylvania: Shifting Historical Perspective. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997.

  Tucker, Mark. Ellington: The Early Years. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois, 1991.

  Turner, Ralph H., and Lewis M. Killian. Collective Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1957.

  Turner, Tina, with Kurt Loder: I, Tina: My Life Story. New York: William Morrow and Co., 1986.

  Tuttle, William M. Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996.

  The WPA Guide to Illinois. New York: Pantheon, 1983.

  Wells-Barnett, Ida B. A Black Holocaust in America: The East St. Louis Massacre of 1917. Milwaukee: Black Holocaust Society, 2002.

  ———. Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.

  ———. On Lynchings. New York: Humanity Books, 2002.

  Wood, Ean. The Josephine Baker Story. New York: Sanctuary, 2000.

  Woodson, Carter. A Century of Negro Migration. New York: Russell and Russell, 1969.

  ARTICLES, INTERNET SITES, AND MISCELLANEOUS

  “Alex Manly—Wilmington Race Riots.” Encyclopedia of the State Library of North Carolina. http://statelibrary.dcr.state.nc.us/nc/bio/afro/riot.htm.

  Anderson, Sherwood. “Nobody’s Home.” Today, March 30, 1935, 6–10.

  Baker, Josephine. Speech at Kiel Opera House on February 3, 1952. University of Missouri—St. Louis Black History Project, Western Historical Manuscripts Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis.

  Du Bois, W. E. B. “Leroy Bundy.” Crisis, Nov. 1922, 16–21.

  ———. “The Massacre of East St. Louis.” Originally in Crisis, September 1917. Reprinted in The Seventh Son, 80–106.

  East St. Louis Action Research Project. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. http://www.eslarp.uiuc.edu.

  Franklin, V. P. “The Philadelphia Race Riot of 1918.” Reprinted in Trotter and Smith, African Americans in Pennsylvania, 316–29.

  Freund, Charles Paul. “The Secret History of Woodrow Wilson.” Reason, March 2003 Print Edition. http://www.reason.com.

  Garvey, Marcus. “The Conspiracy of the East St. Louis Riots.” Speech in New York on July 8, 1917. Reprinted in Early (ed.), Ain’t But a Place, 300–306.