Gulag
Page 79
67. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, pp. 241–42.
68. Armonas, pp. 156–61.
69. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, p. 320.
70. Bazarov, p. 362.
71. Ibid., pp. 370–76.
72. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, p. 144.
73. GARF, 9401/1a/20.
74. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, p. 248.
75. Ibid., p. 247.
76. GARF, 9401/1a/20.
77. Yakir, p. 31.
78. Anonymous, Ekho iz Nebutiya, pp. 289–92.
79. Yurganova, interview with the author.
80. Hochschild, p. 87.
81. Pechora, interview with the author.
82. Lahti, unpublished memoir.
83. GARF, 9414/1/27.
84. Serge, p. 28.
85. Bazarov, p. 383.
86. GARF, 9414/1/42 and 9401/1a/7; Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago , vol. II, pp. 447–51.
87. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, p. 11.
88. GARF, 9414/1/42; Bazarov, pp. 385–93.
89. Razgon, p. 162.
90. GARF, 9412/1/58.
91. GARF, 9401/1a/62 and 7.
92. GARF, 8131/37/4553.
93. GARF, 9401/1a/57.
94. Yakir, pp. 32–62.
95. Kmiecik, pp. 70–74.
96. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, pp. 283–93.
97. Conquest, The Great Terror, p. 274.
98. GARF, 8131/37/2063.
99. GARF, 9414/1/27.
100. Kmiecik, pp. 93–94.
101. GARF, 9401/1a/81.
102. GARF, 8131/37/2063.
103. Kmiecik, pp. 114–17.
104. GARF archives, in the collection of the author.
105. GARF, 9414/4/1; from the newspaper Perekovka, June 1, 1934.
106. GARF, 9412/1C/47.
107. GARF, 9401/1a/107.
108. GARF, 9401/1a/7/84.
109. GARF, 8131/37/4547.
110. Razgon, pp. 162–63.
111. Ibid., p. 162.
112. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, p. 457.
113. Wigmans, p. 90.
114. Klein, Ulybki nevoli, pp. 20–25.
115. See Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, for excerpts from these memoirs.
16: The Dying
1. Gagen-Torn, p. 244.
2. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, pp. 107–8 and 476.
3. GARF, 9414/3/40.
4. Herling, p. 51.
5. Sgovio, p. 177.
6. Tamara Petkevich, “Just One Fate,” in Vilensky, Till My Tale Is Told, pp. 223–24.
7. Shalamov, from samizdat publication, translated with the help of Galya Vinogradova. While the author has good reason to believe this is the work of Varlam Shalamov, some work may have incorrectly circulated in the Soviet Union under his name.
8. Sgovio, pp. 162 and 160–61.
9. Bardach, p. 236.
10. Efrussi, “Dokhodyagi,” in Vilensky, Osventsim Bez Pechei, p. 59.
11. Herling, p. 136.
12. Gilboa, pp. 53–54.
13. Bardach, p. 235.
14. GARF, 8131/37/797.
15. N. Mandelstam, p. 263.
16. Gnedin, pp. 80–86.
17. Merridale, p. 261.
18. Todorov, Facing the Extreme, p. 37.
19. Rotfort, pp. 40–41.
20. Eizenberger, pp. 38–39.
21. Mindlin, p. 60.
22. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, p. 91.
23. Todorov, Facing the Extreme, p. 63.
24. GARF, 8131/37/809.
25. Buca, p. 150; Berdinskikh, p. 28.
26. Vogelfanger, p. 80.
27. GARF, 8131/37/809.
28. GARF, 8131/37/542.
29. Merridale, p. 265.
30. Buca, p. 152.
31. Shalamov, p. 281.
32. GARF, 9414/1/2809.
33. GARF, 9414/1/2771.
34. Herling, p. 149.
17: Strategies of Survival
1. Shalamov, Neskolko moikh zhiznei, p. 391.
2. Vogelfanger, p. 206.
3. Zorin, interview with the author.
4. Quoted in Todorov, Facing the Extreme, p. 32.
5. Buca, p. 79.
6. Olitskaya, pp. 233–34.
7. Usakova, interview with the author.
8. Herling, p. 68.
9. Levi, p. 97.
10. Bettelheim, pp. 169–71.
11. Colonna-Czosnowski, p. 118.
12. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, pp. 405–14.
13. This is Todorov’s observation. Todorov, Facing the Extreme , p. 35.
14. Quite a lot has been written about tufta in the USSR. See Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism; Berliner; Ledeneva; and Andreev-Khomiakov.
15. Frid, pp. 134–36.
16. Dyakov, p. 54.
17. Anonymous, interview with the author.
18. Cohen, pp. 140–47.
19. Yasnyi, p. 51.
20. Ulyanovskaya, pp. 360–61.
21. Borin, pp. 234–36.
22. Shister, interview with the author.
23. Petrov, p. 179.
24. Herling, p. 37.
25. Razgon, p. 155.
26. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, p. 218.
27. Usova, unpublished memoir.
28. Karta, Kazimierz Zamorski Collection, Teczka 1, File 6107 (Halina Storozuk).
29. Frid, pp. 134–36.
30. E. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 416.
31. Sgovio, pp. 167–75.
32. S. Fomchenko, “Pervye desyat,” in Uroki, p. 225.
33. P. Galitsky, “Etogo Zobyt Nelzya” in Uroki, pp. 83–88.
34. Samsonov, Zhizn prodolzhaetsya, pp. 70–71.
35. Maksimovich, pp. 91–100.
36. Zorin, interview with the author.
37. Finkelstein, interview with the author.
38. Adamova-Sliozberg, pp. 50–51.
39. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, pp. 247 and 255.
40. Maksimovich, pp. 91–100.
41. Klein, Ulybki nevoli, pp. 60–61 and 73.
42. GARF, 8131/37/1261, 797, and 1265.
43. GARF, 9414/1/28.
44. Filshtinsky, pp. 15–22.
45. Sofsky, p. 130.
46. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, pp. 253, 254, and 252.
47. Bien, unpublished memoir.
48. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, pp. 252–53.
49. Petrov, pp. 48–96.
50. GARF, 9489/2/19.
51. Razgon, p. 154.
52. GARF, 9401/12/316.
53. GARF, 8131/37/356.
54. Razgon, pp. 222–31; Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago , vol. II, p. 255.
55. Filshtinsky, pp. 120–21.
56. Yasnyi, pp. 50–51.
57. Berdinskikh, p. 113.
58. Ibid., pp. 113–14.
59. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, pp. 360–66.
60. Ibid., pp. 260–61.
61. Mukhina-Petrinskaya.
62. Panin, p. 176.
63. Razgon, p. 153.
64. Ibid., p. 156.
65. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, p. 405.
66. Kopelev, pp. 142–44.
67. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, p. 108.
68. Sgovio, p. 206.
69. Eisenberger, pp. 67–68.
70. Okunevskaya, p. 280.
71. Aleksandrovich, p. 11.
72. Rozsas, p. 282. I am grateful to Janos Rozsas for sending me this material.
73. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. I., p. 279; Reshetovskaya, pp. 121–22.
74. GARF, 9414/1/2736.
75. GARF, 9489/2/25.
76. Gliksman, p. 300.
77. Herling, pp. 101–2.
78. Bien, unpublished memoir.
79. GARF, 8131/37/356, 809, and 356.
80. Papkov, p. 57.
81. GARF, 9489/2/25.
82. Aleksandrovich, pp. 11 and 22.
83. GARF, 8131/37/4547.
85. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, pp. 408–10.
86. Colonna-Czosnowski, pp. 102–7.
87. Dolgun, p. 240.
88. Finkelstein, interview with the author.
89. Okunevskaya, p. 336.
90. Aleksandrovich, p. 12.
91. GARF, 8131/37/4547 and 542.
92. Vogelfanger, pp. 71–72.
93. Gliksman, pp. 211–12.
94. Buca, p. 150.
95. GARF, 8131/37/356.
96. Lipper, p. 251.
98. GARF, 8131/37/809.
98. Trus, interview with the author.
99. GARF, 9414/1/2739.
100. For example, GARF, 9489/2/18.
101. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, p. 8.
102. Dolgun, p. 239.
103. Bardach, p. 259.
104. Vogelfanger, pp. 68 and 162.
105. GARF, 9414/1/2771.
106. GARF, 9489/2/5/474.
107. Zhigulin, p. 153.
108. Kudryavtsev, p. 288.
109. Lipper, pp. 257–58; Herling, p. 102; Aleksandrovich, pp. 24–25; A. Marchenko, My Testimony, pp. 140–42.
110. Frid, p. 137.
111. Dolgun, p. 273; Lipper, pp. 257–58.
112. Aleksandrovich, p. 24.
113. Herling, pp. 80–82.
114. Zhigulin, p. 151.
115. Bardach, pp. 332–33.
116. Lipper, p. 258.
117. Bystroletov, p. 407.
118. Dolgun, pp. 176–79.
119. Todorov, Facing the Extreme, pp. 47–120.
120. Federolf, p. 224.
121. Z. Marchenko, unpublished memoir. I am grateful to Zoya Marchenko for giving me her work.
122. Kekushev, pp. 84–85.
123. Panin, p. 79.
124. Bardach, pp. 207–8.
125. Adamova-Sliozberg, pp. 8–9.
126. S. I. Kuznetsov, p. 613.
127. Chetverikov, p. 35.
128. Bardach, pp. 122–39.
129. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind.
130. Gagen-Torn, p. 161.
131. Shalamov, from samizdat publication, translated with the help of Galya Vinogradova. While the author has good reason to believe this is the work of Varlam Shalamov, some work may have incorrectly circulated in the Soviet Union under his name.
132. Scammell, Solzhenitsyn, p. 284.
133. Pashnin, pp. 103–17.
134. Cherkhanov, unpublished memoir; Ulyanovskaya, p. 300.
135. Zorin, interview with the author.
136. Kopelev, p. 154.
137. Zarod, p. 118.
138. K. Golitsyn, pp. 267–68.
139. Dolgun, pp. 206–7.
140. Andreevna, interview with the author.
141. Tvardovsky, pp. 272–75.
142. Klein, Ulybki nevoli, pp. 70–71.
143. Feldgun, unpublished memoir.
144. GARF, 9489/2/20.
145. Sgovio, pp. 168–69.
146. Feldgun, unpublished memoir.
147. E. Sudakova, “Otryvok iz vospominanii,” in Uroki, pp. 132–37.
148. Panin, p. 79.
149. Chirkov, pp. 96–97.
150. Herling, p. 156.
151. Okunevskaya, p. 352.
152. Starostin, pp. 88–92.
153. Joffe, p. 139.
154. Głowacki, pp. 317–18.
155. Finkelstein, interview with the author.
156. E. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, p. 292.
157. Wat, p. 142.
158. Dolgun, pp. 141–47.
159. Bardach, p. 190.
160. Colonna-Czosnowski, pp. 120–21.
161. Gagen-Torn, “Rukopis,” in Pamyat Kolymy, pp. 23–25.
162. Smirnov, conversation with the author, February 2001.
163. Herling, pp. 139–40.
164. Arginskaya, interview with the author.
165. Ulyanovskaya, pp. 356–65.
18: Rebellion and Escape
1. Rawicz, p. 96.
2. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. III, p. 97.
3. Zhigulin, p. 192.
4. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, pp. 343–79.
5. MacQueen.
6. Herling, pp. 125–29.
7. Petrov, pp. 104–7.
8. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, p. 204; Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. III, p. 161.
9. Solzhenitsyn, ibid., pp. 197–99.
10. A. Morozov, p. 187.
11. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. III, pp. 197–99.
12. Kusurgashev, pp. 34–36; Rossi, The Gulag Handbook , pp. 204–5.
13. GARF, 9401/1a/552 and 64.
14. Stajner, p. 78.
15. Zhigulin, pp. 191–212.
16. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, p. 406.
17. GARF, 9401/1a/185.
18. GARF, 9401/1a/7.
19. Malsagov.
20. V. V. Ioffe, “Bolshoi Pobeg 1928-ogo goda,” in Solovetskie Ostrova, vol. II, pp. 215–16 (GARF).
21. GARF, 9414/1/8.
22. V. Tchernavin, p. 357; T. Tchernavin.
23. GULAG, BBC documentary, produced by Angus MacQueen, 1998.
24. Chukhin, Kanaloarmeetsi, pp. 188–92.
25. GARF, 9401/1a/5.
26. Makurov, p. 6.
27. GARF, 9401/1a/5 and 6.
28. Makurov, pp. 38–39.
29. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, pp. 310–11.
30. Kozlov, “Sevvostlag NKVD SSSR,” p. 81.
31. GARF, 9401/1a/20.
32. GARF, 9401/1a/128; Kuchin, Polyanskii ITL, p. 148.
33. Poleshchikov, p. 39.
34. GARF, 9414/1/2632; Kuchin, Polyanskii ITL, p. 148.
35. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, p. 345; Rossi, The Gulag Handbook , p. 342.
36. Rossi, ibid., p. 310.
37. Lvov, unpublished memoir.
38. V. Tchernavin, p. 319.
39. Buber-Neumann, p. 112.
40. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. III, p. 140.
41. GARF, 9401/1/2244.
42. Buca, p. 33.
43. GARF, 9401/1a/64.
44. Bardach, pp. 106–21.
45. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. III, p. 204.
46. Solzhenitsyn, ibid.; Yuri Morakov (former MVD officer), conversation with the author, November 1999.
47. Morakov, ibid.
48. GARF, 9414/4/10.
49. GARF, 9401/12/319.
50. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, pp. 80–85.
51. GARF, 9401/1a/552.
52. GARF, 9401/1a/64 and 9401/12/319 among others.
53. Buca, pp. 123–27.
54. Vilensky, interview with the author.
55. Sgovio, p. 177.
56. Dvorzhetsky, p. 48.
57. Dolgun, p. 338.
58. C. A. Smith.
59. One of the most prominent Russian students of the Gulag, Veniamin Ioffe, the director of St. Petersburg Memorial, tried to find Rawicz’s files and failed. He was further thrown into doubt after carrying on a correspondence with the late author, which he felt was unconvincing.
60. Herling, pp. 124–25.
61. Ibid., pp. 194–95.
62. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 45.
63. Petrus, p. 61.
64. Ratushinskaya, pp. 21–22.
65. Petrus, p. 63.
66. Osipova, pp. 87–109; Serge, p. 71.
67. V. M. Poleshchikov, unpublished monograph, in the author’s collection; Ioffe, pp. 122–130; Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, p. 120.
68. Osipova, pp. 109–34; M. Baitalsky, “Trotskisty na Kolyme,” in Minuvshee, vol. 2, 1990, pp. 346–57.
69. Vilensky, Soprotivlenia v Gulage, p. 158.
70. Kravchenko, p. 341.
71. The following account comes largely from Mikhail Rogachev, “Bunt nad Usa,” Karta, no. 17, 1995, pp. 97–105, and from conversations with Rogachev in July 2001. There are also some details from Poleshchikov, pp. 37–65; Ivanova, Labor Cam
p Socialism, pp. 54–55; Osipova, pp. 167–82.
72. Ivanova, ibid., p. 45.
Part Three: The Rise and Fall of the Camp–Industrial Complex, 1940–1986
19: The War Begins
1. Sitko, untitled poem, from Tyazhest sveta, p. 11.
2. Stajner, p. 101.
3. Razgon, p. 210.
4. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, pp. 26–42.
5. Warwick, unpublished memoir.
6. GARF, 9414/1/68; Imet silu pomnit, p. 166.
7. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, p. 28.
8. Gogua, unpublished memoir.
9. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.
10. Adamova-Sliozberg, p. 63.
11. GARF, 9401/1a/107.
12. Herling, p. 197.
13. Kokurin and Morukov, “Gulag: struktura i kadry,” Svobodnaya Mysl, no. 7; Kokurin and Petrov, Gulag, p. 441.
14. Bacon, p. 149.
15. Ibid., p. 148.
16. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 94.
17. GARF, 7523/4/37, 39, and 38.
18. L. Ginzburg, p. 14; Overy, pp. 104–8.
19. GARF, 9401/2/95, 94, and 168.
20. Overy, p. 77.
21. Brodsky, p. 285.
22. This is what I was told on the islands by at least three people, including the director of the Solovetsky museum.
23. Makurov, p. 195.
24. Guryanov, Kokurin, and Popiski, pp. 8–10. Drogi Smierci, published by the Karta Institute, consists of a collection of documents from Soviet archives, along with mostly unpublished memoirs from Karta’s Archiwum Wschodnie (“Eastern Archive”), concerning the fate of prisoners in eastern Poland during the early days of the war.
25. Bacon, p. 91; Guryanov, Kokurin, and Popiski, pp. 10–26.
26. Guryanov, Kokurin, and Popiski, pp. 10–26.
27. GARF, 9414/1/68.
28. Guryanov, Kokurin, and Popiski, p. 40.
29. Ibid., pp. 90–91.
30. Sabbo, pp. 1128–32.
31. Bacon, pp. 88–89.
32. M. Shteinberg, “Étap vo vremya voiny,” in Pamyat Kolymy, 1978, p. 167.
33. Guryanov, Kokurin, and Popiski, p. 90.
34. GARF, 9414/1/68.
35. M. Shteinberg, “Étap vo vremya voiny,” in Pamyat Kolymy, 1978, pp. 167–71.
36. GARF, 9414/1/68.
37. Bacon, p. 91.
20: “Strangers”
1. In Taylor-Terlecka, pp. 56–57. Translated with the help of Piotr Paszkowski.
2. Razgon, p. 138.
3. Ibid.
4. G-lowacki, p. 273.
5. Sabbo, p. 754.
6. Sword, p. 13.
7. Guryanov, pp. 4–9.
8. Martin, “Stalinist Forced Relocation Policies,” pp. 305–39.
9. Lieven, The Baltic Revolution, p. 82.
10. G-lowacki, p. 331.
11. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 123; Głowacki, p. 331.