The Unseen War

by Lambeth, Benjamin S.

76.Melvin R. Laird, “Iraq: Learning the Lessons of Vietnam,” Foreign Affairs, November–December 2005, 22.

  77.James Dobbins, “Iraq: Winning the Unwinnable War,” Foreign Affairs, January–February 2005, 16. CENTCOM’s target priorities for the opening days of the campaign may have been partly culpable for this ensuing downside consequence of the allied invasion, if only indirectly. A knowledgeable commentator later suggested in this regard: “Unfortunately, leadership attack may have contributed to the difficulty in establishing a lasting peace after the major combat operations ended. . . . [The approach chosen] enabled an overall strategy using a relatively small invasion force. This force was sufficient for the drive to Baghdad, but it proved insufficient for establishing security after the regime’s collapse. . . . [That said], the chaos that engulfed Iraq in the opening days of coalition rule was not an indictment of leadership attack, but rather a consequence of incorrect assumptions made by coalition leaders about the nature of postwar Iraq” (Hinote, “More Than Bombing Saddam,” 168, 175).

  78.Grossman, “Evolving Threats May Offer Air Force ‘Unlearned Lessons’ in Iraq,” 16.

  79.For perhaps the most thorough survey of the many individuals both in and out of government who urged the Bush administration to anticipate and duly hedge against the likely needs of postcampaign stabilization, see Bensahel et al., After Saddam.

  80.Atkinson, In the Company of Soldiers, 187.

  81.“Prepared Testimony by U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld to the Senate Armed Services Committee,” U.S. Senate, Washington, D.C., July 9, 2003.

  82.This theme was first developed in depth more than four decades ago in the widely acclaimed study by the late Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968).

  83.Thomas L. Friedman, “If I Had One Wish,” New York Times, October 4, 2006.

  84.Ricks, Fiasco, 127–128.

  85.Eliot Cohen, “No Way to Win a War,” Wall Street Journal, December 7, 2006.

  86.Frederick W. Kagan, Finding the Target: The Transformation of American Military Policy (New York: Encounter Books, 2006), 358–359, 369–370. The 3rd ID’s after-action assessment of its campaign experience candidly noted that the division “did not have a dedicated plan to transition quickly from combat operations to SASO [stability and support operations]. . . . As the division transitioned to SASO, it did not have sufficient forces or effective rules of engagement (ROE) to control civilian looting and rioting throughout the city.” The assessment concluded regarding this point that “we must be ready for rapid success. Follow-on SASO plans must be developed in advance and the necessary resources readily available for commitment,” with arrangements in place “to conduct SASO concurrently with combat operations or immediately after the completion of combat operations” (Third Infantry Division [Mechanized] After Action Report: Operation Iraqi Freedom, 13, 18).

  87.Krepinevich, Operation Iraqi Freedom: A First-Blush Assessment, 7–8.

  88.Ibid., 11.

  89.This characterization of fourth-generation warfare was put forward by Vice Adm. David Nichols, USN, deputy commander of U.S. Central Command, during a flag presentation at the 2004 annual symposium of the Tailhook Association, Reno, Nev., September 11, 2004.

  90.Col. Thomas X. Hammes, USMC (Ret.), The Sling and the Stone: On War in the 21st Century (St. Paul, Minn.: Zenith Press, 2006), 2.

  91.Stout, Hammer from Above, 378.

  92.Colin S. Gray, The Air Power Advantage in Future Warfare: The Need for Strategy (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air Power Research Institute, Air University, 2007), 15, 18, 20.

  SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

  Government Documents

  Abizaid, Gen. John P., USA. “Investigation of Suspected Friendly Fire Incident near An Nasiriyah, Iraq, 23 March 2003.” Memorandum for commanders, USCENTAF, USARCENT, USNAVCENT, USMARCENT, SOCCENT, and Joint Forces Command. U.S. Central Command, MacDill AFB, Fla., March 6, 2004.

  Andrew, Rod. U.S. Marines in Battle, An Nasiriyah, 23 March–2 April 2003. Washington, D.C.: Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps, 2009.

  “Army Announces Patriot Missile System’s Performance in Operation Iraqi Freedom.” U.S. Army news release. Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., December 10, 2004.

  Australia’s National Security: A Defence Update 2003. Canberra, Australia: Department of Defence, 2003.

  Bannon, Claire. “Op Bastille/Falconer Timeline.” Canberra, Australia, no date.

  “Coalition Forces Air Component Command Briefing.” Department of Defense, Washington, D.C., April 5, 2003.

  Duelfer, Charles, and others. Comprehensive Report of the Special Adviser to the DCI on Iraq’s WMD. Washington, D.C.: Iraq Survey Group for the Central Intelligence Agency, September 30, 2004.

  Fires in the Close Fight: OIF Lessons Learned. Fort Stewart, Ga.: 3rd Infantry Division DIVARTY [Division Artillery], November 2003.

  Haag, SSgt. Jason L., USAF. “OIF Veterans Discuss Lessons.” Air Force Print News. USAF Air Warfare Center Public Affairs, Nellis AFB, Nev., July 31, 2003.

  Handy, Gen. John W., USAF. Operation Iraqi Freedom—Air Mobility by the Numbers. Scott AFB, Ill.: Headquarters Air Mobility Command, October 1, 2003.

  Houston, Air Marshal A. G., RAAF. “Message from Chief of Air Force: Operation Falconer.” Canberra, Australia, March 24, 2003.

  ———. “Message from Chief of Air Force: Operation Falconer.” Canberra, Australia, April 4, 2003.

  Howard, Hon. John. Address to the Committee for Economic Development of Australia, Canberra, Australia, November 20, 2002.

  ———. Address to the House of Representatives, Parliament House, Canberra, Australia, March 18, 2003.

  Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction Programs. Washington, D.C.: Director of Central Intelligence, October 2002.

  Joint Chiefs of Staff. Doctrine for Joint Operations. Joint Publication 3-0. Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, September 10, 2001.

  ———. Joint Fire Support. Joint Publication 3-09. Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, November 13, 2006.

  Joint Lessons Learned: Operation Iraqi Freedom Major Combat Operations. Coordinating draft. Norfolk, Va.: U.S. Joint Forces Command, March 1, 2004.

  Lessons of Iraq: Government Response to the Committee’s Third Report of Session, 2003–2004. London: House of Commons, Defence Committee, HC 635, June 8, 2004.

  Lessons of Iraq: Third Report of Session 2003–04. Vols. 1–3. London: House of Commons, Defence Committee, HC 57-I/II/III, March 16, 2004.

  Moseley, Lt. Gen. T. Michael, USAF. Operation Iraqi Freedom—by the Numbers. Shaw AFB, S.C.: Assessment and Analysis Division, Headquarters U.S. Central Command Air Forces, April 30, 2003.

  ———. “USCENTAF Friendly Fire Investigation Board: A-10–USMC Friendly Fire Incident (near An Nasiriyah, Iraq, 23 March 2003).” Memorandum for commander, U.S. Central Command, May 23, 2003. U.S. Central Command Air Forces, Shaw AFB, S.C.

  “Operation Falconer Honors List.” Canberra, Australia, Department of Defence, November 28, 2003.

  “Operation Iraqi Freedom: Theater Air and Missile Defense History.” 32nd Army Air and Missile Defense Command, Fort Bliss, Tex., September 2003.

  Operations in Iraq: First Reflections. London: Ministry of Defence, July 2003.

  Operations in Iraq: Lessons for the Future. London: Ministry of Defence, December 2003.

  “Prepared Testimony by U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld to the Senate Armed Services Committee.” U.S. Senate, Washington, D.C., July 9, 2003.

  Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Patriot System Performance: Report Summary. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, January 2005.

  Review of Operational-Level Interoperability between the Military Forces of Australia and the United States of America. Camp H. M. Smith, Hawaii: U.S. Pacific Command; and Canberra, Australia: Department of Defence, October 2004.

  Schlesinger, J
ames R., and others. Final Report of the Independent Panel to Review DoD Detention Operations. Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, 2004.

  Secretary of the Air Force. Counterland Operations. Air Force Doctrine Document 2-1.3. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air Force Doctrine Center, September 11, 2006.

  “Statement by Admiral Edmund P. Giambastiani Jr., Commander, U.S. Joint Forces Command, before the House Armed Services Committee.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. House of Representatives, October 2, 2003.

  “Statement of Brigadier General Marc Rogers, USAF, Director for Joint Requirements and Integration (J8), U.S. Joint Forces Command, before the 108th Congress, House Armed Services Committee, Subcommittee on Terrorism and Unconventional Threats.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. House of Representatives, October 21, 2003.

  “Team Assessing OIF Air Component Effectiveness.” AFPN [Air Force Print News] news story, Camp As Sayliyah, Qatar, June 13, 2003.

  Third Infantry Division (Mechanized) After Action Report: Operation Iraqi Freedom. Fort Stewart, Ga.: U.S. Army 3rd Infantry Division, 2003.

  The War in Iraq: ADF Operations in the Middle East in 2003. Canberra, Australia: Department of Defence, 2004.

  Books

  Ajami, Fouad. The Foreigner’s Gift: The Americans, the Arabs, and the Iraqis in Iraq. New York: Free Press, 2006.

  Allawi, Ali A. The Occupation of Iraq: Winning the War, Losing the Peace. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007.

  Anderson, Jon Lee. The Fall of Baghdad. New York: Penguin Press, 2004.

  Atkinson, Rick. In the Company of Soldiers: A Chronicle of Combat. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.

  Boot, Max. War Made New: Technology, Warfare, and the Course of History, 1500 to Today. New York: Gotham Books, 2006.

  Boyne, Walter. Operation Iraqi Freedom: What Went Right, What Went Wrong, and Why. New York: Tom Doherty Associates, 2003.

  Bremer, L. Paul III. My Year in Iraq: The Struggle to Build a Future of Hope. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006.

  Bush, George [H. W.], and Brent Scowcroft. A World Transformed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998.

  Bush, George W. Decision Points. New York: Crown Publishers, 2010.

  Davies, Steve. F-15C/E Eagle Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Osprey Combat Aircraft No. 47. Oxford, England: Osprey Publishing, 2004.

  Davies, Steve, and Doug Dildy. F-16 Fighting Falcon Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Osprey Combat Aircraft No. 61. Oxford, England: Osprey Publishing, 2006.

  Davis, Vincent. “Organization and Management.” In American Defense Annual, 1987–1988, ed. Joseph Kruzel. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1987.

  DeLong, Lt. Gen. Michael, USMC (Ret.). Inside CentCom: The Unvarnished Truth about the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 2004.

  Diamond, Larry. Squandered Victory: The American Occupation and Bungled Effort to Bring Democracy to Iraq. New York: Times Books, 2005.

  Fick, Nathaniel. One Bullet Away: The Making of a Marine Officer. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005.

  Fontenot, Col. Gregory, USA (Ret.); Lt. Col. E. J. Degen, USA; and Lt. Col. David Tohn, USA. On Point: The United States Army in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2004.

  ———. On Point: The United States Army in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2005.

  Franks, Gen. Tommy, USA (Ret.), with Malcolm McConnell. American Soldier. New York: Regan Books, 2004.

  Gordon, Michael R., and Bernard E. Trainor. Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq. New York: Pantheon Books, 2006.

  ———. The Endgame: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Iraq, from George W. Bush to Barack Obama. New York: Pantheon Books, 2012.

  Haass, Richard N. War of Necessity, War of Choice: A Memoir of Two Iraq Wars. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009.

  Hammes, Col. Thomas X., USMC (Ret.). The Sling and the Stone: On War in the 21st Century. St. Paul, Minn.: Zenith Press, 2006.

  Holmes, Tony. U.S. Navy Hornet Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Part 2. Osprey Combat Aircraft No. 58. Oxford, England: Osprey Publishing, 2005.

  Hunt, Peter. Angles of Attack: An A-6 Intruder Pilot’s War. New York: Ballantine Books, 2002.

  Huntington, Samuel P. Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1968.

  Keegan, John. The Iraq War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004.

  Knights, Michael. Cradle of Conflict: Iraq and the Birth of the Modern U.S. Military. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2005.

  Kometer, Lt. Col. Michael W., USAF. Command in Air War: Centralized versus Decentralized Control of Combat Air Power. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, June 2007.

  Koopman, John. McCoy’s Marines: Darkside to Baghdad. St. Paul, Minn.: Zenith Press, 2004.

  Lambeth, Benjamin S. The Transformation of American Air Power. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000.

  Mansoor, Peter R. Baghdad at Sunrise: A Brigade Commander’s War in Iraq. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008.

  Murray, Williamson, and Maj. General Robert H. Scales Jr., USA (Ret.). The Iraq War: A Military History. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003.

  Purdum, Todd S. A Time of Our Choosing: America’s War in Iraq. New York: Henry Holt, 2003.

  Reynolds, Col. Nicholas E., USMC (Ret.). Basrah, Baghdad, and Beyond: The U.S. Marine Corps in the Second Iraq War. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2005.

  Ricks, Thomas E. Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq. New York: Penguin Press, 2006.

  ———. The Gamble: General David Petraeus and the American Military Adventure in Iraq, 2006–2008. New York: Penguin Press, 2009.

  Robinson, Linda. Tell Me How This Ends: General David Petraeus and the Search for a Way Out of Iraq. New York: Public Affairs, 2008.

  Rove, Karl. Courage and Consequence: My Life as a Conservative in the Fight. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010.

  Rumsfeld, Donald. Known and Unknown: A Memoir. New York: Sentinel, 2011.

  Shimko, Keith L. The Iraq Wars and America’s Military Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

  Stout, Jay A. Hammer from Above: Marine Air Combat over Iraq. New York: Presidio Press, 2005.

  West, Bing. The Strongest Tribe: War, Politics, and the Endgame in Iraq. New York: Random House, 2008.

  West, Bing, and Maj. Gen. Ray L. Smith, USMC (Ret.). The March Up: Taking Baghdad with the United States Marines. New York: Bantam Dell, 2003.

  Willis, Clint. Boots on the Ground: Stories of American Soldiers from Iraq and Afghanistan. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2004.

  Woodward, Bob. Plan of Attack. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004.

  ———. The War Within: A Secret White House History, 2006–2008. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008.

  Wright, Evan. Generation Kill: Devil Dogs, Iceman, Captain America, and the New Face of American War. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2004.

  Zinnmeister, Karl. Boots on the Ground: A Month with the 82nd Airborne in the Battle for Iraq. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003.

  Zucchino, David. Thunder Run: The Armored Strike to Capture Baghdad. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2004.

  Monographs

  Bensahel, Nora, et al. After Saddam: Prewar Planning and the Occupation of Iraq. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-642-A, 2008.

  Biddle, Stephen, and others. Toppling Saddam: Iraq and American Military Transformation. Carlisle, Pa.: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, April 2004.

  Deptula, Col. David A., USAF. Firing for Effect: Change in the Nature of Warfare. Arlington, Va.: Aerospace Education Foundation, 1995.

  Dobbins, James, et al. Occupying Iraq: A History of the Coalition Provisional Authority. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-847-CC, 2009.

  Donnelly, Thomas. Operation Iraqi Freedom: A Strategic Assessment. Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 2000.

  Dunn, Richard J. III, Price T. Bingha
m, and Charles A. Fowler. Ground Moving Target Indicator Radar and the Transformation of U.S. Warfighting. Arlington, Va.: Northrop Grumman Analysis Center, February 2004.

  Gray, Colin S. The Air Power Advantage in Future Warfare: The Need for Strategy. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air Power Research Institute, Air University, 2007.

  Hosmer, Stephen T. Why the Iraqi Resistance to the Coalition Invasion Was So Weak. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-544-AF, 2007.

  Jacobs, Jody, David E. Johnson, Katherine Comanor, Lewis Jamison, Leland Joe, and David Vaughn. Enhancing Fires and Maneuver through Greater Air-Ground Joint Interdependence. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-793-AF, 2009.

  Johnson, David E. Learning Large Lessons: The Evolving Roles of Ground Power and Air Power in the Post–Cold War Era. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-405-AF, 2005.

  Kirkpatrick, Charles E. Joint Fires as They Were Meant to Be: V Corps and the 4th Air Support Operations Group during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Land Warfare Papers No. 48. Arlington, Va.: Institute of Land Warfare, Association of the U.S. Army, October 2004.

  Krepinevich, Andrew F. Operation Iraqi Freedom: A First-Blush Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, 2003.

  Lambeth, Benjamin S. Air Power against Terror: America’s Conduct of Operation Enduring Freedom. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-166-1-CENTAF, 2005.

  ———. American Carrier Air Power at the Dawn of a New Century. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-404-NAVY, 2005.

  ———. Combat Pair: The Evolution of Air Force–Navy Integration in Strike Warfare. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-655-AF, 2007.

  ———. NATO’s Air War for Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MR-1365-AF, 2001.

  Lynch, Kristin F., John G. Drew, Robert S. Tripp, and Charles Robert Roll Jr. Supporting Air and Space Expeditionary Forces: Lessons from Operation Iraqi Freedom. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-193-AF, 2005.

  Mueller, Karl P., and others. Striking First: Preemptive and Preventive Attack in U.S. National Security Policy. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-403-AF, 2006.