To the Ends of the Earth
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9. Frederick A. Cook, My Attainment of the Pole: Being the Record of the Expedition That First Reached the Boreal Center, 1907–1909 (New York: Kennerly, 1912), p. 27.
10. At least one author (and noted polar explorer) has speculated that Cook's hunger for fame was aroused by his experiences in the Antarctic while serving as physician on the Belgica. (Wally Herbert, The Noose of Laurels: The Discovery of the North Pole [London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1989], p. 24.) Herbert's book debunking the claims of Cook and Peary was self-serving, in that he and his party had unequivocally arrived at the North Pole in 1969. By undermining the contentions of these two earlier explorers Herbert therefore stood to go into the history books as the first to attain this milestone.
11. For his second attempt at climbing Denali, Cook had received contributions from several patrons, including a saw manufacturer who promised him $10 thousand—or nearly $300 thousand today—if Cook would go hunting with him in Alaska after the climb.
12. Cook's conviction and seven-year prison sentence for promoting a fraudulent oil company in Texas destroyed much of his remaining credibility.
13. Roosevelt's father died when he was twelve, and MacArthur's when Douglas was sixteen.
14. Henderson, True North, p. 34.
15. Douglas MacArthur's mother would similarly follow him to West Point when he enrolled there in 1899.
16. In 1887, after his first Arctic expedition, Peary had written, “Remember, mother I must have fame, and I cannot reconcile myself to years of commonplace drudgery and a name late in life when I see an opportunity to gain it now and sip the delicious draughts while yet I have youth and strength and capacity to enjoy it to the utmost. And I am not entirely selfish, mother. I want my fame now while you can enjoy it too.” (Quoted in Herbert, Noose of Laurels, p. 65.)
17. John Edward Reems, Peary: The Explorer and the Man (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1967), p. 52.
18. Henderson, True North, p. 221.
19. “Dr. Cook Admits He Guessed,” Eugene Register-Guardian (OR), November 30, 1910.
20. Cook, My Attainment of the Pole, pp. 3–4.
21. Harold Horwood, Bartlett: The Great Canadian Explorer (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1977), p. 93.
22. In his diary, Peary did not record that he had arrived at the pole or what he had done during the thirty hours spent there. (Herbert, Noose of Laurels, p. 18.)
23. Peary was granted a long-term leave of absence with full pay so that he could focus exclusively on polar exploration.
24. Robert E. Peary, The North Pole: Its Discovery in 1909 under the Auspices of the Peary Arctic Club (New York: Greenwood, 1910), pp. 9–10.
25. Henderson, True North, p. 186.
26. A typical New York City physician earned $1500 in 1909. Cook earned twice this amount that same year for giving a single lecture on his “discovery” of the North Pole at Carnegie Hall. (Bryce, Cook & Peary, p. 956.)
27. Ibid., p. 11.
28. Charles Morris, Finding the North Pole: Dr. Cook's Own Story of His Discovery, April 21, 1908; The Story of Commander Peary's Discovery, April 6, 1909 (Washington: W. E. Scull, 1909), p. 48.
29. J. Martin Miller, editor's preface, Discovery of the North Pole: Dr. Frederick A. Cook's Own Story of How He Reached the North Pole, April 21st, 1908, and the Story of Commander Robert E. Peary's Discovery, April 6th, 1909 (Philadelphia: G. A. Parker, 1909), [unpaginated].
30. Letter of Robert E. Peary to Thomas H. Hubbard, January 26, 1911, quoted in Bryce, Cook & Peary, p. 525.
31. Even Cook's old friend from the Belgica expedition, Roald Amundsen, withdrew his support of the doctor's claim after taking a close look at the evidence.
32. Rebecca M. Herzig, Suffering for Science: Reason and Sacrifice in Modern America (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2005), p. 78.
33. The Times paid $4000 for the rights to serialize Peary's account of his polar trek. (Bryce, Cook & Peary, p. 377.)
34. “London Applauds Peary's Exploit,” New York Times, September 7, 1901.
35. Pittsburgh Press, September 26, 1909, quoted in Reems, Peary, p. 282.
36. The actual finding was that Peary had gotten with 1.6 miles of the pole. This was close enough for him to be named its “discoverer” and be awarded a retirement rank of rear admiral. But Peary still had his detractors, who felt he did not deserve this honor. After the House Committee on Naval Affairs had first rejected promoting Peary, the secretary of the Arctic Club (and staunch supporter of Cook), Captain Bradley S. Osbon, wrote to its members saying that to “have given this selfish egotist, this frigid braggart, the trite rank of Rear Admiral would have been a foul blot on the records of Congress and an insult to the navy of the United States. It would have disgusted millions of our citizens who have no confidence in this alleged pole hunter and arctic fur trader and story teller.” (“Osbon Denounces Peary,” New York Times, February 15, 1910.)
37. “The North Pole Aftermath,” remarks of Honorable S. D. Fess, House of Representatives, March 4, 1915,” available online at: http://www.polarcontroversy.com/fess.htm (accessed April 4, 2016).
38. John Noble Wilford, “Peary Notes Said to Imply He Failed to Reach Pole,” New York Times, October 13, 1988.
39. Dennis Rawlins, Peary at the North Pole: Fact or Fiction? (Washington: Robert E. Luce, 1973), pp. 144–45. Rawlins caustically noted that “Peary's unique aiming ability is equalled only by his intuition for gauging distance.” The explorer's “whole claim on precise distance estimation is preposterous, as his own figures show.”
40. Hugh Eames, Winner Lose All: Dr. Cook and the Theft of the North Pole (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), pp. 5, 313.
41. A leading advocate of this conclusion is Robert M. Bryce, in his monumental Cook & Peary: The Polar Controversy, Resolved (1997).
42. Roger Launius, “Recalling a Century Old Controversy: Did Cook or Peary Reach the Pole First?” Roger Launius's Blog, September 28, 2015, https://launiusr.wordpress.com/2015/09/28/recalling-a-century-old-controversy-did-cook-or-peary-reach-the-north-pole-first/ (accessed January 31, 2016).
43. Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen would face similar condemnation for initially concealing from Robert Scott his intent to make for the South Pole.
44. John Crace, “Captain Scott: A Second-Rate Hero?” Guardian, September 27, 2010, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/27/captain-scott-antarctic-amundsen-south-pole (accessed February 7, 2016).
45. Solomon has pointed out that unusually cold weather prevented Scott and his companions from returning to their base camp more speedily.
46. Mole, “In Search of Amundsen's Tent.”
47. Beau Riffenburgh, The Myth of the Explorer: The Press, Sensationalism, and Geographical Discovery (London: Belhaven, 1993), p. 3.
Adare, Cape, 64, 217, 237
Admiralty, British, 25, 28, 30–32, 50, 153–54, 159, 168, 250
Advance (ship), 51–53, 55, 82, 94–95, 98, 122, 128, 170, 191, 199
Advance Base, 203, 205, 206
adventure, desire for, 11, 25, 26, 28, 31, 35, 47, 52, 93, 167–68, 180, 192, 194, 204, 225, 245, 250
Age of Discovery, 25, 202
Alone (Byrd), 201, 203, 209
America (ship), 101
American Civil War, 65, 98, 176, 215, 241, 253, 288n5, 300n5
American Geographical Society, 216
American interest in poles, 22, 32, 40, 51, 53–54, 93, 172
American Philosophical Society, 193
Amundsen, Roald, 14, 40, 42, 132, 136, 141, 159, 190, 194, 196, 197, 220, 223, 295n43
and Belgica expedition, 14, 189, 331n31
personality of, 147, 213, 216, 240, 268, 271
and South Pole, 56, 62, 89, 112, 135, 178, 198, 220, 258, 267, 280, 332n43
writings of, 260–61, 328n44
Antarctica, 12–13, 16, 61–63, 73, 79, 83, 105, 115–17, 134–35, 146–47, 168, 177, 193, 195, 201, 211, 223, 230, 232, 237, 246, 248–50, 253, 266, 287n9, 291n44, 306n42, 329n4
Arctic, 13, 18,
22, 25–34, 40, 48, 50, 54–57, 63, 65, 71, 77, 80, 84–85, 88, 90, 96, 100, 103, 119, 126, 128, 132, 141, 153, 159, 165, 169, 184, 189, 196, 209, 214, 225, 234, 250–51, 264, 269
Arctic Club of America (NYC), 274, 276, 328n39, 331n36
“Arctic fever,” 26, 44, 254
Armstrong, Alexander, 79, 223
Back, George, 41, 77–78, 91, 103, 126, 169, 190, 209, 289n23
Baffin Bay, 26–27, 30–31, 33, 104, 125, 225
Baffin Island, 51
Barrie, J. M., 245, 248, 325n6, 326n17
Barrow, John, 25
and Arctic exploration, 26
books by, 26–27
Barrow Strait, 83
Bartlett, Robert A., 220, 272
Beardsmore Glacier, 266
Beechey Island, 33, 153
Belgica (ship), 11–18, 63, 65, 189, 200, 227, 239, 260, 269–70, 295n43, 330n10, 331n31
Bellingshausen, Fabian von, 168
Bellot, Joseph R., 98
Bennett, Floyd, 189, 201, 268–69, 329n8
Bennett, James G., Jr., 43–44, 133, 230, 291n51
Bennett, James G., Sr., 253
Bering Strait, 31, 44, 58, 99, 185, 301n18
Bernacchi, Louis, 64, 83, 146–47, 177, 193, 230, 306n43
Bessels, Emil, 228, 231
Blake, William, 299n41
“blond Eskimos,” 131
books about polar exploration, 28, 35, 36–37, 43, 45, 55, 72, 76, 128, 130, 172, 184, 191, 231, 251–52, 253, 255–56, 260–61, 275, 279, 282
Borchgrevink, Carsten, 64, 75, 83, 146–47, 177, 193, 230, 306n43
Bowers, Henry R. (“Birdie”), 62, 110–12, 114, 160–61, 179–80, 197–98, 229, 243, 247, 299n47, 318n39
Bradley, John R., 272, 274
Brainard, David L., 68–70, 156, 184, 187
Britannia, Cape, 187
Bruce, William S., 135, 306n42
Bryant, Cape, 187
Bryce, Robert M., 280, 332n41
Budington, Sydney O., 129, 136, 231
Burke, Edmund, 296n2
Byrd, Richard E., 189, 206–207
early career of, 268–69
isolation of, 201–205, 209
personality of, 210–11, 321n23
Byron, Lord, 29, 123, 171
Caird, James, 43
Campbell, Victor, 124, 219, 238, 324n30
Camp Clay, 69
Canada, 35, 41, 52, 83, 127, 131–32, 137, 168, 191, 207
cannibalism, 71, 138–39, 149–51, 154–58, 160, 176, 188, 251, 309n34, 310n2
“Captain of the Pole-Star, The” (Doyle), 48, 58
Carter, Robert R., 51–52
Challenger (ship), 173
character, importance of, 28, 35, 37, 38, 40–41, 56, 97, 120, 123, 135, 138, 154, 172, 195, 275–76, 278, 283
Charcot, Jean-Baptiste, 78, 101, 239–40
Cherry-Garrard, Apsley, 62, 79, 81, 92, 111–14, 161, 179–81, 197, 219–20, 236, 247, 295n37
Christiansen, Frederick, 187
Church, Frederic E., 95, 300n5, 300n6
Clay, Henry I., 66, 295n48
clothing, on expeditions, 16, 36, 83, 125, 127, 133, 138, 195, 315n7
Coffin, Nathaniel, 240
Collins, Jerome, 44, 57–59
Collins, Wilkie, 154
Colwell, John C., 183
Comte, Auguste, 90
Conway, Martin, 80
Cook, Frederick, 40, 56, 136, 207, 227, 239, 260, 295n43, 330n10, 331n31
and Belgica, 13–17, 65
conviction for mail fraud, 277, 330n12
early career of, 14, 207, 233–34, 269, 331n26
and Mount McKinley, 276, 330n11
North Pole, claim of, 234, 265, 268–83, 320n13, 330n10
polar ambition of, 14, 233, 255
veracity of, 268–70, 272–73
Cook, James, 73–76, 79, 133, 168, 195, 212
courage, need for, 19, 22, 24, 35, 38, 40, 44, 61, 92, 98, 133, 157–58, 169, 172, 180, 198, 253, 256, 259, 276, 279
Courtauld, Augustine, 206
crews, 12, 41, 52, 287n9
conflicts with commanders, 49, 57–59, 63, 65, 199, 200, 213–14, 218, 234–35, 252
dissension within, 12, 15, 58, 63, 216, 222, 227–28, 240
esprit among, 64, 87, 223, 225
mood of, 15, 17, 37, 42, 45, 48, 86, 103, 121, 227
selection of, 12, 62, 136, 210, 214, 220, 223–24, 232
Cross, William, 69
Crozier, Cape, 92, 111, 179–80, 197–98, 247
Crozier, Francis, 34, 173, 213
Crystal Palace, 124, 131, 167
cultural superiority, 24, 28, 36, 39, 56, 98, 121–22, 125–26, 134, 136, 138, 150
Daly, Charles P., 176, 188
Danenhower, Charles, 102
darkness, impact of, 11, 17, 48, 67, 81–82, 102–104, 112, 146, 207, 214–15, 226, 239, 241, 247, 263
Darwin, Charles, 97, 125, 167, 196, 245
Davis, John, 297n5
Defoe, Daniel, 202
De Gerlache, Adrien, 12–17, 40, 200
De Haven, Edwin, 52
De Long, Emma, 60, 326n14
De Long, George W., 108
and Jeannette, 44, 57–58, 241, 258
early exploits of, 44
leadership of, 58–59, 86, 136, 211, 230, 291n44
journal of, 58
personality of, 50, 59–60, 241
despair, in ice, 11, 17, 33, 41, 45, 60, 67, 68, 86, 95–96, 102, 114, 214, 215, 236, 242, 257
Dickens, Charles, 154, 245
diet, polar, 11, 16, 34, 45, 48, 59, 62, 70, 74, 103, 105, 119–20, 132, 137–38, 141, 144–45, 148–49, 159, 176, 195, 212, 215, 216
discipline, 15, 37, 65, 68, 70, 86, 175, 211–13, 218–19, 231, 237
Discovery expedition, 177, 178, 196, 223, 232, 237, 245, 249
dogs, 30, 62, 69, 74, 103, 105, 110, 127, 135, 141–48, 171, 208, 246, 249, 272, 282, 306n3, 307n3, 307n8, 318n34
Donne, John, 244
Doyle, Arthur Conan, 47–50, 58
economic interest, in polar exploration, 25, 50–51, 164, 167, 168, 175
egalitarianism, among crews, 57, 199, 213
Elephant Island, 110, 219
Ellesmere Island, 66, 184, 187, 189, 315n6
England, Rupert, 231
entertainment, shipboard, 36, 87, 119, 121–22, 212–13, 222
Erebus (ship), 31–33, 50, 105, 119–22, 153, 155, 158–59, 212–13
Erebus, Mount, 85
Essex (ship), 151, 308n18
Evans, Cape, 112, 116, 179, 181, 198, 217, 233
Evans, Edgar, 114, 160
Evans, Edward (“Teddy”), 62
expeditions, polar, costs of, 32, 42, 43, 165, 166, 168, 192, 274, 287n6, 316n18
exploration, rationale for, 18, 28, 42, 50, 52, 64, 90, 98–99, 160, 165–66, 189, 199, 204, 222, 230, 265
Explorers Club, 256, 276
failure, of expeditions, 17, 27–28, 35, 46, 56–57, 62–63, 83, 98, 100, 107, 157, 165, 167, 181, 196, 222, 233, 236, 243, 250, 257, 268, 274
fame, pursuit of, 28, 42, 52, 55, 72, 184, 188–89, 191, 193–94, 204, 221, 249, 251, 261, 262, 266, 268, 270, 279, 282
Farthest North, 28, 42, 99, 172, 183, 187, 189, 228
Farthest South, 13, 81, 232, 233, 295n42
Fess, Simon D., 277
Fiala, Anthony, 101–102
Fiennes, Ranulf, 281
Forster, Johann R., 74
Fort Conger, 66, 175, 185–87, 218, 229, 235, 315n8
Fort Reliance, 91
Fox (ship), 92, 173, 195–96
Fox, Maggie, 191, 316n18
Fram (ship), 65, 100, 142–43, 147, 194, 199, 214, 216, 223
Franke, Rudolph, 207, 272
Franklin, Jane, 32–33, 50–51, 66, 82, 153–55, 173
Franklin, John, 42, 51–52, 75, 93, 106, 119–20, 126, 212, 251, 254
Canadian explorations of, 30, 41, 45, 120, 127, 160, 168
death of, 33–34, 39, 128, 153–55, 195
; disappearance of, 31, 34, 50–51
heroic image of, 30–31, 33, 35, 39, 71, 152
personality of, 29–30, 35–36
and search for Northwest Passage, 26, 29, 119–22, 168–69, 173
Franklin party, search for, 22, 34–35, 38, 50–52, 63, 78, 83–84, 86, 98, 128–29, 136, 153, 155, 170–71, 196, 215, 223, 225, 234, 254, 257, 309n27
Franz Josef Land, 165
Frazer, James G., 150
Friedrich, Caspar D., 27
Gardiner, Hampden S., 185
George Henry (ship), 78
Gilder, William H., 84, 310n34
Gjøa (ship), 141–42, 159
Godfrey, William, 53, 55, 64, 126, 199, 225–27, 234, 293n20
Golden Bough (Frazer), 150
Gopnik, Adam, 308n19
Gothic, 84–85
government support for expeditions, 24, 29, 260
Great Chain of Being, 130
Great Ice Barrier, 112, 181, 266
Greeley, Horace, 253
Greely, Adolphus W., 40, 134, 142, 156, 185–86, 197, 211, 313n35, 314n1, 315n2, 315n6
background of, 65
desire for fame, 68, 72, 186–89
later career of, 157, 188–89
leadership of, 65–70, 134, 136, 175, 211, 218–19, 229, 235
survival of, 71, 183–84
Greenland, 26, 31, 47–48, 52–53, 55, 64–67, 72, 82, 94, 96, 101–102, 119–20, 126, 128, 130, 133, 141, 152, 171–73, 175, 184–87, 191, 196, 206–207, 210, 215, 221, 228, 234, 252, 272–73, 275, 295n48
Gregory, John W., 178
Grinnell, Henry, 32, 51, 52, 83, 93, 153, 170, 176, 221, 234, 235, 241, 251, 292n9
Grinnell Expedition, First, 52, 153, 251
Grinnell Expedition, Second, 221, 234
Griper (ship), 90
Hall, Charles F., 40, 78, 128–30, 136, 155, 174–75, 192, 213, 215–16, 221–22, 228, 231, 240, 255, 258, 260
Hayes, Isaac I., 93–96, 98, 102–103, 105, 136, 184, 192–95, 300n5, 300n6, 313n30, 316n23, 317n25, 317n26
Hecla (ship), 36, 75, 77, 87, 90
Henry, Charles B., 70, 156
Henson, Matthew, 136, 220, 272, 306n3
heroism, 13, 16, 19, 23, 20–29, 34–35, 37–38, 40, 43, 45–46, 53, 56, 64, 71, 89, 101, 108, 110, 113, 119, 134, 136, 149, 152, 157, 167–72, 176, 181–82, 189, 190–91, 193, 239, 247–49, 254, 256–57, 268, 275, 278