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innovation in: education and, 82; late 19th century, 77–85, 108; pragmatism of, 82; 20th century, 289, 290–1
Marx on, 76, 82, 289, 382
military, 436
and production, 74, 76
science and, 289–91
standardization in: of alternating current, 108; of gauges, 79; metric system, 81; of nuts, bolts, screws, 79
and workers, 143, 259
see also machines
telephone, 83–4
Teller Amendment (1898), 237, 240
tenant farmers, 130–3
tenement life, 137–8, 141
tennis, 529
Tenure of Office Act (1866), 53, 54, 56, 57
Terrill, Tom, 213
textiles, manufacture of:
in Civil War era, 15
late 19th century, 107
machinery for, 74, 381
Thalberg, Irving, 526
Thayer, William Makepeace, 160
theaters, movie, 525
Theory of the Leisure Class (Veblen), 302–3
Thernstrom, Stephan, 260–1
third parties, political, 207–9, 235, 501
Thomas, Gen. George, 34–5
Thomas, Norman, 552
Thompson, Annie, 261
Thompson, Mary Wilson, 445
Thrasher, Leon, 415
Tilden, Bill, 529
Tilden, Samuel J., 67, 201, 202, 205, 210
Tillman, Benjamin R., 131, 336
Time magazine, 521–2
tires, rubber, 108
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 83, 192, 438
Trachtenburg, Alan, 309
Tracy, Benjamin, 223
trade unions, see labor unions
trains, 249, 556
see also railroads
transients (in Depression), 556–7, 558–9
transportation:
in Civil War, 16–17
railroads supplant canals, 108
turn-of-the-century, 288
urban, 250–1
see also airplane; automobile; bicycling; railroads; trains; trolleys
travel, foreign, 220–1
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 435
Treaty of Portsmouth, 342
Treaty of Versailles, 456–7
American ratification of, 457–68
and German reparations, 496
Triangle fire (1911), 444, 502
Trilling, Diana, 320
trolleys, 250–1
Trotsky, Lev Davidovich, 432
Trumbull, Lyman, 42, 57
trusts:
Adams (H.) on, 305
“beef,” 332
Brandeis and, 392
“money,” 387, 388, 391, 392
resistance to, see antitrust movement
Roosevelt (T.) and, 332–3, 349–52
Wilson and, 389–91
Tuchman, Barbara, 412
tunnel, in Hoosac Mountains, Mass., 76–8
Tunney, Gene, 530
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 299, 400
Turner, George Edgar, 17
Tuskegee Institute (Ala.), 284
Twain, Mark, 168, 170–1, 250, 291
Huckleberry Finn, 170–1, 172
Innocents Abroad, The, 221
Tweed, William Magaer, Jr. (“Boss”), 266–7
twine binder, 81
Underwood, Oscar, 369
underworld, 265, 266
unemployment:
1893, 226
in Depression, 543, 545–7, 556; of blacks, 546
unemployment insurance, 551–2
Unger, Irwin and Debi, 246
Union, the (in Civil War), 17–18
Union Army, 8
casualties of, 14
“Colored” regiments in, 22
conscripts and “volunteers” in, 14–15
desertions from, 8
morale of, 8, 22
supplies for, 15
Union for Concerted Moral Effort, 269
Union Pacific Railway, 4, 93, 96
unions, see labor unions
United Artists, 525
United Mine Workers, 333
United Nations, 414
United States Steel Corporation, 350–1, 389
upper classes, 113–19
upward mobility, social, 259–60
urban living conditions, 255–62
for blacks, 147–8
for immigrants, 146–7, 247, 256–8
progressives and, 245–6
reform efforts and, 266–75
upward mobility, 259
for working class, 136–41
see also cities
Urofsky, Melvin, 392
utilities, 273, 274
utopianism, 173
vagabonds, 556–7, 558–9
Vallandigham, Clement, 8, 33
Van Buren, Martin, 210
Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 92–3, 127
Vanderbilt, Frederick W., 118–19
Vanderbilt, Mrs. William K., 118
Van Syckel, Samuel, 81
Van Waters, Miriam, 512
Vanzetti, Bartolomeo, 537–8
Vardaman,James, 149
Veblen, Thorstein, 90–1, 302–4, 507
and Dos Passos, 536
and Marx, compared, 303–4
Theory of the Leisure Class, The, 302–3
Versailles peace negotiations (1919), 450–3, 455–7
and League of Nations, 452, 455–7
preparations for, 434, 437, 448–9
Treaty of Peace, 452, 456
veterans, as bonus marchers (1932), 558
Vickrey, Fanny, 185
Vicksburg, Va., battle of, 9–10, 12
Victoria League, 125
Villa, Francisco “Pancho,” 405–6
violence:
against blacks owning farms, 134
and black suffrage, 66
in labor strikes, 175–6, 177, 225–6, 227, 556
see also lynching; riots
Virgin Islands, 403
visual arts, 308–13
voting rights, see suffrage
Wade, Benjamin F., 42, 44, 56
Wade-Davis Bill, 32
wages:
in Civil War period, 19
in Depression, 556
in manufacturing (1860s–1890s), 140
Ricardo’s “iron law” of, 155
of women, 19, 140, 429, 431, 489
Waite, Morrison R., 200, 203, 204
Wald, Lillian, 278, 419
Wall, Joseph, 162, 235
Wall Street, see stock market
Ward, John W., 510
War Industries Board, 428–9
Waring, George E., 254
Washington, D.C.:
blacks in, 148; suffrage of, 53
in Civil War, 28
as nation’s capital, 211–12
planning and completion of, 271
Washington, Booker T., 132–3, 234, 284
Washington Conference (1921), 493–5
Waterman, Lewis E., 82
water supply, urban, 253–4
Watson, Thomas A., 84
Watson, Tom, 131, 187–8, 224, 228, 231, 232
Wayland, Francis, 155
wealth:
distribution of, 140, 142–3, 192
government and, 217
justified by Social Darwinism, 158–9
Wealth Against Commonwealth (Lloyd), 166
Wealth of Nations (Smith), 154–5, 258
wealthy, the, 113–19, 262
athletic activities of, 527
Bryan and, 369
Fitzgerald (F. S.) on, 537
among Jews in New York, 145–6
pleasures of, alleged, 288–9
Roosevelt (T.) and, 331–2, 349–51
weapons:
in Civil War, 16
reduction and control of, 493–5
Weaver, Gen. James B., 190, 208
Webster, Daniel, 153
Wecter, Dixon, 534
Weinryb, Bernard, 259
Weinstein, Edwin A., 466
Western Federation of Miners, 282–3
Western Reserve, Ohio, 196
western U.S., landscape of, 96–7
see also California
Westinghouse, George, 81
westward expansion, 128–9
Weyl, Walter, 393–4
Wharton, Edith, 319–23
Wheeler, Burton K., 501, 553
Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, 238–9
White, Edward Douglass, 488
White, Henry, 448
White, William Allen, 160, 186, 329, 346, 360
“whitecapping,” 134
Whitehead, Arthur, 223
Whiteman, Paul, 509
Whitman, Walt, 30, 37, 123
on democracy, 192–3
Democratic Vistas, 193
and Dos Passos, 536
Leaves of Grass, 192, 193
Whittier, John Greenleaf, 110
Wiebe, Robert, 214, 218, 268
Wiener, Norbert, 109
Wiley, Bell, 23
Wiley, Harvey, 348
Wilhelm II, Kaiser, 407, 437
Wilkes, Capt. Charles, 31
Willard, Frances, 279
Williams, T. Harry, 15
Willson, Thomas L., 289
Wilson, Edith Galt, 448, 463, 465, 470
Wilson, Edmund, 557
Wilson, Henry, 60, 68
Wilson, Woodrow:
and blacks, 418
character and personality of, 366, 449, 467
Congressional Government, 386
and Democratic party, 368–70, 386, 388
early life of, 365
and elections: 1912, 371–7 passim; 1916, 420–1; 1920, 469, 473–4
first political speech of, 363–4
as governor of New Jersey, 366
health of, 456, 463–6 passim, 469–70
on leadership, 364–5, 383
and Lenin’s ideology, compared, 412
and power, 365
as President, 383–475; and Clemenceau, 450–1; economic policy of, 374, 385–91; election of, 377, 421; flexibility of, 388–9, 391, 456; foreign policy of, 399–406, 418; Fourteen Points speech, 435, 437; and House (E. M.), 386, 423, 456; inauguration of, 383–4; leadership qualities of, 385–6, 391, 417, 425; and League of Nations, 414, 449, 452, 453–75; and Lodge (H. C), 454, 459–60; nomination of, 369–70, 420; as orator, 363–4, 383–4, 463; at Paris peace talks, 451–3, 455–7; progressivism of, 419; and Supreme Court, 418–19; travels to Paris (1918), 448–51; and World War I, 411–13, 418, 422–6, 427, 434–5
as Princeton president, 365–6
and Roosevelt (T.), 372–3
and third-term possibility, 469, 473
and wife’s death, 411
Wise, Stephen, 419
Wissler, Clark, 290
Wister, Owen, 288
“Wobblies,” see Industrial Workers of the World
women:
in Civil War, 26–7
college education of, 514
in Depression, 546
in farm families, 127–8
health of, 123–4
in labor force: labor unions and, 176, 179, 280, 431; leadership of, 280–1; in manufacturing, 19, 422; strikes by, 280–1; wages of, 19, 140, 429, 431, 489; in World War I, 429, 430–1, 442
leaders among (turn-of-century), 275–81
middle class, 119–27, 261–2; housework of, 261
and peace movement, 493
in politics and political parties: 1920s, 534; People’s Party, 185–6; socialists, 398; for suffragist cause, 442, 444
in professions, 261–2, 442
as reform leaders, 270, 275–8
sexuality of, 121–4, 15–6
suffrage of, 442–7; and black suffrage, 204, 208–9; and 15th Amendment, 61; and 19th Amendment, 444–7; People’s Party and, 190; political priorities and tactics on, 209, 444; Roosevelt (T.) and, 444, 445; state-by-state movement, 445; support for, among women, 262, 280, 445, 534; Wilson and, 376, 418, 444, 445, 446–7; Woodhull and, 125
wealthy, 115, 117–18, 262
and women’s clubs, 262
Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 279
women’s club movement, 262
Wood, Leonard, 471 Woodhull, Victoria Claflin, 124–7
Woodward, C. Vann, 131, 135, 187, 398
workers:
in Chicago stockyards, 111
cultural diversity among, 143–4
and industrial democracy, 392, 421
Marx on, 112, 259, 489; on class solidarity, 143, 173; proletarianization, 260–1, 382–3; and trade unionism, 173
political organizing of, 209
Social Darwinism and, 173
and socialism, 173–4, 398–9
sports for, 528
standardization and efficiency of, 258–9, 480
wages of, see wages
women as: labor unions and, 176, 179, 280, 431; leadership of, 280–1; in manufacturing, 19, 422; strikes by, 280–1; wages of, 19, 140, 429, 431, 489; in World War I, 429, 430–1, 442
see also immigrants
Workingmen’s Party, 101
workweek and workday, length of:
eight-hour day, 176, 177, 178, 421, 429
five-day week, 144
nine-hour day, 333
World Court, 495
World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago, 1893), 271, 287
World War I, 407–47
aftermath of, 450; reparations, 496–7
American attitudes toward, 410–11, 416, 425, 438–41; domestic agitation on, 412–13
Arabic pledge on ships’ neutrality, 415, 417, 422
armistice for, 437–8
aviation and aviators in, 436
economic causes of, 409–10, 422
House-Grey Memorandum on, 422–3
military aspects of, 407, 410, 417, 431–4, 435–7; battles, see battles, of World War I
peace negotiations on (Paris, 1919), 450–3, 455–7; and League of Nations, 452, 455–7; preparations for, 434, 437, 448–9; Treaty of Peace, 452, 456
propaganda efforts in, 412, 416–17, 426–7, 439
U.S. and: financial aspects, 418, 421–2, 425–6, 439; military involvement and mobilization, 417, 425, 427–30, 431–2; neutrality, 411, 412, 414, 416, 426; public opinion, 410–16, 425, 438–41
Wilson and, 411–13, 418, 422–6, 427, 434–5
Wounded Knee Creek, massacre at, 219
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 312–13
Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 290
writing and writers, American, 288, 313–23
best-selling books, 322
“yellow-dog” contracts, 488, 489
Yosemite valley, 97
Young, Art, 313–14
Young, Brigham, 95
Young, Owen D., 497, 532
youth (1920s), 512–15
Zimmerman, Joan, 278
Zimmermann, Arthur, 425
Zukor, Adolph, 524–5, 526
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
IN CARRYING THIS STUDY of “The American Experiment” on from the Civil War years to the crises of the early 1930s, I have continued to emphasize the role of purposeful leadership in the processes of historical causation. But now my central concern is with economic as well as intellectual and political leadership. The late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries were indeed an era of great financial and industrial tycoons—Morgan, Carnegie, Rockefeller, Ford, and many others. I have tried to indicate some of the influence these leaders had on American thought, society, and politics.
As in the first volume, however, I do not conceive leadership as a function merely of the more celebrated persons, but as the product of numberless purposes and actions of leaders of the second and third cadres in many social and political arenas. Even in situations where the top economic leadership—the great industrialists and financiers—appears capable of wielding enormous economic and political power, the “subordinate” leaders in my view have a critical influence
on the course of events. Their role also helps to explain why economic power cannot be simply or mechanically converted into political power; for these “lesser” leaders, reflecting as they do the endless social and ideological diversity of the American people, will often tend to lie outside, or even block or divert, the vertical flow of power from the top—and the more numerous and varied such leaders, the greater this tendency. I plan to return to the central problem of the role of concentrated economic power in a democratic republic in the third volume of this trilogy.
Once again I have sought to illuminate the role of second- and third-cadre leaders by sinking “historical drill-holes” in specific sectors and situations, through research in a number of archives and libraries. For their unfailing helpfulness I thank the archivists and librarians at the Baker Library at Harvard Business School, the Buffalo Historical Society, California Historical Society, Columbia University Library, Ford Motor Company, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Huntington Library, Kansas State Historical Society, Library of Congress, Louisiana State University Library, Massachusetts Historical Society, Minnesota State Archives, New-York Historical Society, New York Public Library, Ohio Historical Society, Pennsylvania Historical Society, Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe, Stanford University Library and Archives, Stowe-Day Library (Hartford), Williams College Library, and various other, more specialized archives and libraries.
This volume, like The Vineyard of Liberty, has been very much a collaborative venture, in which I have had the privilege of working with great and varied talents. Once again I have pitilessly enlisted assistance from my family. My wife and fellow author, Joan Simpson Burns, helped me understand literary and other cultural forces in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries by sharing with me her ideas on and extensive knowledge of these subjects. I made full use of the versatility of Deborah Edwards Burns, a journalist who helped me with research on women’s history and related social history, and who conceived and executed the illustrative endpapers. Trienah Meyers Kuykendall critiqued the whole manuscript, making particular use of her legal background, and I tested my ideas against those of Peter Meyers, a young political theorist. I was especially fortunate to have the creative assistance of Stewart Burns, author of a doctoral dissertation, “The Populist Movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth: The Politics of Non-Reformist Reform” (1984), who generously helped me in placing the role of the Farmers Alliance in a broad historical and theoretical framework, shared with me his data, and collaborated with me in the drafting of the sections on the Alliance, Populism, and related intellectual and political developments.
Because of the emphasis on economic and social history as well as intellectual and political history in this volume, I am especially grateful for help and collaboration from social historians working in these areas. Joan G. Zimmerman gave me indispensable assistance in the fields of Progressive politics, social legislation, and women’s education, as did Ellen M. James and Dee Ann Montgomery in women’s history, Eric Scheye in intellectual and ethnic history, Fran Burke in the political leadership of women, Anne Margolis in intellectual history, and Philippa Strum, author of a preeminent study of Louis Brandeis, in legal history and politics. Others who provided valued help in specific areas were Eunice Burns, Laurie Burns Gray, Rodger Davis, Lee Farbman, Michael Koessel, and Jay Leibold. Michael Beschloss, Lisl Cade, and Maurice Greenbaum also contributed in important ways. Milton Djuric provided extensive and invaluable editorial assistance at every stage of the book’s preparation.