American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

  [“Low income, high unemployment”]: Page and Huyck, p. 153.

  [“Fire every damn Nigger”]: Interview with Milburn (Big Bud) Jackson, in Shackelford and Weinberg, pp. 300-3, quoted at p. 302.

  316 [Harlan County]: see John W. Hevener, Which Side Are You On?: The Harlan County Coal Miners, 1931-39 (University of Illinois Press, 1978); G. C. Jones, Growing Up Hard in Harlan County (University Press of Kentucky, 1985).

  [TVA]: David E. Lilienthal, TVA: Democracy on the March (Harper, 1953); Frank E. Smith, Land Between the Lakes (University Press of Kentucky, 1971); Gordon R. Clapp, The TVA: An Approach to the Development of a Region (University of Chicago Press, 1955); Caudill, pp. 318-24.

  317 [Texas]: Robert A. Caro, The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power (Knopf, 1982), esp. ch. 1; T. R. Fehrenbach, Lone Star: A History of Texas and the Texans (Macmillan, 1968); George N. Green, The Establishment in Texas Politics: The Primitive Years, 1938-1957 (Greenwood Press, 1979); Neil R. Peirce, The Megastates of America (Norton, 1972), pp. 495-563; Key, ch. 12.

  317-18 [Johnson, birth to Senate]: Caro; Alfred Steinberg, Sam Houston’s Boy (Macmillan, 1968), chs. 1-27; Doris Kearns, Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream (Harper, 1976), chs. 1-3; Ronnie Dugger, The Politician: The Life and Times of Lyndon Johnson, The Drive For Power, from the Frontier to the Master of the Senate (Norton, 1982), parts 1-10; Merle Miller, Lyndon: An Oral Biography (Putnam, 1980), ch. 1; Sam Houston Johnson, My Brother Lyndon (Cowles Book Co., 1970), chs. 2-4; Seth S. McKay, W. Lee O’Daniel and Texas Politics, 1938-1942 (Texas Tech Press, 1944), ch. 6; Monroe Billington, “Lyndon B. Johnson and the Blacks: The Early Years,” Journal of Negro History, vol. 42, no. 1 (January 1977), pp. 26-42; T. Harry Williams, “Huey, Lyndon, and Southern Radicalism,” Journal of American History, vol. 40, no. 2 (September 1973), pp. 267-93.

  318 [“Endless chains”]: Megastates, p. 509.

  [Jones]: Bascom N. Timmons, Jesse H. Jones: The Man and the Statesman (Henry Holt, 1956); Jesse H. Jones and Edward Angly, Fifty Billion Dollars: My Thirteen Years with the HFC (Macmillan, 1951).

  319 [Texas oilmen]: Carl Coke Rister, Oil! Titan of the Southwest (University of Oklahoma Press, 1949); Richard O’Connor, The Oil Barons: Men of Greed and Grandeur (Little, Brown, 1971); Ed Kilman and Theon Wright, Hugh Roy Cullen: A Story of American Opportunity (Prentice-Hall, 1954); Harry Hurt III, Texas Rich: The Hunt Dynasty from the Early Oil Days through the Silver Crash (Norton, 1981); John Bainbridge, The Super-Americans (Doubleday, 1961).

  [Johnson’s 1948 Senate campaign]: Steinberg, chs. 28-29, “Landslide Lyndon” quoted at p. 276; Dugger, chs. 52-58.

  [Johnson in the Senate]: Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, Lyndon B. Johnson: The Exercise of Power (New American Library, 1966), chs. 3-10; William S. White, The Professional: Lyndon B. Johnson (Houghton Mifflin, 1964), chs. 10-11; Kearns, Johnson, chs. 4-5 and pp. 379-84; Steinberg, Johnson, chs. 30-54; Miller, ch. 2; Alfred Steinberg, Sam Rayburn (Hawthorn Books, 1975), ch. 26; Dugger, part 12; William S. White, Citadel: The Story of The U.S. Senate (Houghton Mifflin, 1968), pp. 88-89, 101-5, 201-2, 209-10, and passim.

  [Kearns on Johnson’s election as party whip]: Kearns, Johnson, p. 102.

  321 [FDR and civil rights]: Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue (Oxford University Press, 1978); Raymond Wollers, Negroes and the Great Depression: The Problem of Economic Recovery (Greenwood Publishing, 1970); John B. Kirby, “The Roosevelt Administration and Blacks: An Ambivalent Legacy,” in Barton J. Bernstein and Allen J. Matusow, eds., Twentieth-Century America: Recent Interpretations, 2nd ed. (Harcourt, 1972), pp. 265-88.

  [Truman and civil rights]: Donald R. McCoy and Richard T. Ruetten, Quest and Response: Minority Rights and the Truman Administration (University Press of Kansas, 1973), chs. 9, 13, and passim; Barton J. Bernstein, “The Ambiguous Legacy: The Truman Administration and Civil Rights,” in Bernstein, ed., Politics and Policies of the Truman Administration (Quadrangle, 1970), pp. 269-314.

  [Sundquist on the filibuster]: Sundquist, Politics and Policy: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years (Brookings Institution, 1968), p. 222.

  [Brown]: 347 U.S. 483 (1954); see also Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (Knopf, 1976); Daniel M. Berman, It Is So Ordered: The Supreme Court Rules on School Desegregation (Norton, 1966); Numan V. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South During the 1950’s (Louisiana State University Press, 1969), chs. 4-5; Robert F. Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (University of Tennessee Press, 1984), ch. 7.

  322 [1950 Court decisions]: Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950); McLaunn v. Oklahoma State Regents, 339 U.S. 637 (1950).

  [“If 1 failed to produce”]: quoted in Kearns, Johnson, pp. 147-48; see also Billington.

  [Civil Rights Act of 1957]: Burk, ch. 10; Steven F. Lawson, Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944-1969 (Columbia University Press, 1976), chs. 6-7; Sundquist, pp. 222-38; J. W. Anderson, Eisenhower, Brownell and the Congress: The Tangled Origins of the Civil Rights Bill of 1956-1957 (Inter-University Case Program/University of Alabama Press, 1964); Kearns, Johnson, pp. 146-52; Evans and Novak, ch. 7; Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956-1961 (Doubleday, 1965), pp. 154-62; Carl Solberg, Hubert Humphrey (Norton, 1984), pp. 179-80. [Black registration, 1919, in Alabama]: Sundquist, pp. 244-45; see also Burk, ch. 11; Lawson, pp. 203-20; Foster Rhea Dulles, The Civil Rights Commission: 1957-1961 (Michigan State University Press, 1968).

  [Little Rock]: Eisenhower, pp. 162-76; Burk, ch. 9; Tony Freyer, The Little Rock Crisis: A Constitutional Interpretation (Greenwood Press, 1984); Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration (Harper, 1961), ch. 16; Bartley, ch. 14 and passim: see also John Bartlow Martin, The Deep South Says “Never” (Ballantine, 1957); James J. Kilpatrick, The Southern Case for School Segregation (Crowell-Collier Press, 1962).

  323 [Struggle over strengthening the act]: see Lawson, pp. 222-49; Sundquist, pp. 238-50; Daniel M. Berman, A Bill Becomes a Law: Congress Enacts Civil Rights Legislation, 2nd ed. (Macmillan, 1966); see also Burk, ch. 11.

  [“Very little faith”]: quoted in Sundquist, p. 243.

  [Kennedy and civil rights]: Carl M. Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (Columbia University Press, 1977), pp. 11-29; Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy (Harper, 1965), pp. 470-72; Burns, Profile, pp. 200-6; Parmet, Jack, pp. 408-14.

  324 [“Shaped primarily”]: quoted in Parmel, Jack, p. 409.

  [Campaign for Democratic nomination]: ibid., chs. 24-27, 29; Theodore C. Sorensen, “Election of 1960,” in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., History of American Presidential Elections, 1789-1968 (Chelsea House, 1971), vol. 4, pp. 3450-54, 3456-61; Sorensen, Kennedy, chs. 4-5; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, chs. 1-2; Solberg, ch. 20; Evans and Novak, chs. 11-13; Whalen, pp. 443-56; Theodore H. White, The Making of the President 1960 (Atheneum, 1961), chs. 2, 4-6; Wall Anderson, Campaigns: Cases in Political Conflict (Goodyear Publishing, 1970), ch. 10.

  [“DearJack”]: quoted in Parmet, Jack, p. 439.

  [“All of us”]: ibid., p. 508.

  325 [Johnson’s selection as running mate]: Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 39-57; Herbert S. Parmet, JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (Dial Press, 1983), pp. 21-30; Sorensen, Kennedy, pp. 162-66; Burner and West, pp. 85-88; Miller, pp. 254-60.

  [“Little shit-ass”]: quoted in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy and His Times (Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 210. [“Evil threat”]: quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 34.

  [Truman and Roosevelt defections]: Joseph P. Lash, Eleanor: The Years Alone (Norton, 1972), pp. 292-97; Marie B. Hecht, Beyond the Presidency: The Residues of Power (Macmillan, 1976), pp. 144-45; New York Times, July 3, 1960, pp. 1, 18-19; Truman quoted on “prearranged affair” at p. 1.

  325-6 [Kennedy-Roosevelt reconciliation]: Lash, pp. 297-99, Kennedy quoted at p. 297; Parmet, JFK,
pp. 35-36.

  326 [Nixon’s nomination]: Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon: The Education of a Politician, 1913-1962 (Simon and Schuster, 1987), ch. 24; Sorensen, “Election,” pp. 3454-56, 3461-69; White, chs. 3, 7.

  [1960 campaign]: Sorensen, “Election,” pp. 3461-69; Sorensen, Kennedy, chs. 7-8; Ambrose, Nixon, chs. 25-26; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, ch. 3; Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, pp. 211-21; Parmet, JFK, ch. 2; Burk, ch. 12; Eisenhower, ch. 25; White, part 2; Richard M. Nixon, Six Crises (Doubleday, 1962), pp. 293-426; Fawn M. Brodie, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character (Norton, 1981), pp. 410-34; Evans and Novak, ch. 14; Brauer, ch. 2; Robert A. Divine, Foreign Policy and U.S. Presidential Elections, 1952-1960 (New Viewpoints, 1974), pp. 183-287; Eric F. Goldman, “The 1947 Kennedy-Nixon ‘Tube City’ Debate,” Saturday Review, vol. 4, no. 2 (October 16, 1976), pp. 12-13.

  326 [Kennedy on separation of church and state]: quoted in Sorensen, Kennedy, p. 190; see also Fuchs, pp. 179-82.

  [1960 election results]: Schlesinger, Elections, vol. 4, p. 3562; see also Bernard Cosman, “Presidential Republicanism in the South, 1960,” Journal of Politics, vol. 24, no. 2 (May 1962), pp. 303-22.

  The Invisible Latins

  [Kennedy’s inaugural address]: January 20, 1961, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962-64), vol. 1, pp. 1-3.

  328 [Kennedy on Alliance for Progress]: March 13, 1961, in ibid., vol. 1, pp. 170-75, quoted at pp. 172, 175.

  [“Heard such words”]: quoted in Schlesinger, Thousand Days, p. 205. [Coolidge’s intervention in Nicaragua]: L. Ethan Ellis, Republican Foreign Policy, 1921-1933 (Rutgers University Press, 1968), pp. 252-61; Harold N. Denny, Dollars for Bullets: The Story of American Rule in Nicaragua (1929; reprinted by Greenwood Press, 1980); Gregorio Selser, Sandino (Monthly Review Press, 1981); William Kamman, A Search for Stability: United States Diplomacy Toward Nicaragua, 1925-1933 (University of Notre Dame Press, 1968).

  [Hoover and Stimson in Latin America]: Bryce Wood, The Making of the Good Neighbor Policy (Columbia University Press, 1961), pp. 123-28, 131-35; Donald M. Dozer, Are We Good Neighbors?: Three Decades of Inter-American Relations, 1930-1960 (University of Florida Press, 1959), pp. 9-16; Ellis, ch. 8.

  [FDR and the Good Neighbor]: Wood; Dozer, chs. 1-4; Irwin F. Gellman, Roosevelt and Batista: Good Neighbor Diplomacy in Cuba, 1933-1945 (University of New Mexico Press, 1973.)

  [Latin America in the American consciousness]: see D. H. Radier, El Gringo: The Yankee Image in Latin America (Chilton Co., 1962), p. 3 and passim.

  329 [Figures of Latin poverty]: Samuel Shapiro, Invisible Latin America (Beacon Press, 1963), p. 3 and chs. 1-7 passim; see also Tad Szulc, The Winds of Revolution: Latin America Today—and Tomorrow (Praeger, 1963), ch. 2; Robert J. Alexander, Today’s Latin America (Anchor Books, 1962), pp. 57-83; Nathan L. Whetten, Guatemala: The Land and the People (Yale University Press, 1961), parts 2-3.

  [“Culture of poverty”]: Oscar Lewis, “The Culture of Poverty,” in Arthur I. Blaustein and Roger R. Woock, eds., Man Against Poverty: World War III (Vintage, 1968), pp. 260-74, esp. pp. 264-68; see also Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty (Basic Books, 1959); Lewis, The Children of Sanchez: Autobiography of a Mexican Family (Random House, 1961); Lewis, La Vida: A Puerto Rican Family in the Culture of Poverty—San Juan and New York (Random House, 1966).

  [Mexican oil dispute]: see Wood, chs. 8-9; Robert F. Smith, The United States and Revolutionary Nationalism in Mexico, 1916-1932 (University of Chicago Press, 1972); Harlow S. Person, Mexican Oil: Symbol of Recent Trends in International Relations (Harper, 1942); Ellis, pp. 229-52.

  329-30 [Forms of government in Latin America]: Shapiro, pp. 18-24, quoted at p. 23.

  330 [Cuban revolt against Spain]: Hugh Thomas, Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom (Harper, 1971), book 3; David F. Trask, The War with Spain, 1898 (Macmillan, 1981); Philip S. Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1891-1902, 2 vols. (Monthly Review Press, 1972).

  [U.S. intervention in Cuba]: Thomas, books 4-8, 10 passim; Henry Wriston, “A Historical Perspective,” in John Plank, ed., Cuba and the United States: Long-Range Perspectives (Brookings Institution, 1967), pp. 1-30; Robert F. Smith, The United States and Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960 (Bookman Associates, 1960), esp. chs. 10-11; Wood, chs. 2-3; Gellman; William Appleman Williams, “The Influence of the United States on the Development of Modern Cuba,” in Robert F. Smith, ed., Background to Revolution: The Development of Modern Cuba (Knopf, 1966), pp. 187-94.

  330 [“Cheating, mañana lot”]: quoted in Wriston, p. 13.

  [Figures of U.S. companies’ control of Cuban economy]: Shapiro, p. 75.

  [U.S. investment as one-third Cuban GNP]: ibid.

  330-1 [Cuban sugar-mill workers and the jobless]: see Thomas, p. 1109.

  331 [Castro’s revolution]: ibid., book 8 passim; Robert F. Smith, “Castro’s Revolution: Domestic Sources and Consequences,” in Plank, pp. 45-68; Herbert L. Matthews, The Cuban Story (George Braziller, 1961); Warren Miller, 90 Miles from Home: The Face of Cuba Today (Little, Brown, 1961); Tad Szulc, Fidel (Morrow, 1986), parts 1-3.

  [U.S.-Cuban relations after revolution]: Thomas, chs. 98-102 passim; Richard E. Welch, Jr., Response to Revolution: The United States and the Cuban Revolution, 1959-1961 (University of North Carolina Press, 1985); Philip W. Bonsai, Cube, Castro, and the United States (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1971); see also F. Parkinson, Latin America, the Cold War, & the World Powers, 1945-1973 (Sage Publications, 1974), ch. 5.

  [Plans for CIA-backed invasion]: Peter Wyden, Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story (Jonathan Cape, 1979), chs. 1-2 passim; Brodie, ch. 27; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President (Simon and Schuster, 1984), pp. 504-7, 556-57, 582-84, 608-10.

  [The “Guatemala model”]: see Lucien S. Vandenbroucke, “Anatomy of a Failure: The Decision to Land at the Bay of Pigs,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 99, no. 3 (Fall 1984), pp. 471-91, esp. pp. 474-75; Richard H. Immerman, The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention (University of Texas Press, 1982), esp. pp. 188-97; Trumbull Higgins, The Perfect Failure: Kennedy, Eisenhower, and the CIA at the Bay of Pigs (Norton, 1987), esp. ch. 1.

  [Kennedy on Castro]: Kennedy, The Strategy of Peace, Allan Nevins, ed. (Harper, 1960), pp. 132, 133.

  [Nixon on eliminating “cancer”]: Nixon, pp. 352-53.

  [“Kennedy Asks Aid”]: New York Times, October 21, 1960, p. 1; see also Nixon, pp. 353-54.

  [Nixon on Kennedy’s proposal]: New York Times, October 22, 1960, p. 8; see also Nixon, pp. 354-57.

  [JFK’s “middle way”]: see Wyden, pp. 92, 99-101, 149-52, and chs. 3-4 passim; see also Schlesinger, Thousand Days, ch. 10 passim; Sorensen, Kennedy, pp. 294-98. [Advisers’group-think]: Vandenbroucke; Wyden, pp. 314-16.

  332 [Bay of Pigs invasion] Wyden, chs. 5-7; Haynes B. Johnson, The Bay of Pigs: Brigade 2506 (Norton, 1964); Higgins, esp. ch. 8; Thomas, ch. 06; Parmet, JFK, ch. 7; Parkinson, ch. 6; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, ch. 11; John Bartlow Martin, Adlai Stevenson and the World (Doubleday, 1977), pp. 622-36; Beatrice Bishop Berle and Travis Beal Jacobs, eds., Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle (Harcourt, 1973), pp. 740-43; Wills, Kennedy Imprisonment, chs. 18-19; Szulc, Fidel, pp. 532-61.

  [“An old saying”]: quoted in Wyden, p. 305.

  [“All my life”]: quoted in Sorensen, Kennedy, p. 309.

  [Paris and Vienna summits, Berlin crisis and war fears, summer 1961]: Schlesinger, Thousand Days, chs. 14-15; Parmel, JFK pp. 183-202; Jack M. Schick, The Berlin Crisis, 1958-1962 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), chs. 5-6; Jean E. Smith, The Defense of Berlin (Johns Hopkins Press, 1963), chs. 11-12 passim; Robert M. Slusser, The Berlin Crisis of 1961 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); Ralph G. Martin, Hero for Our Time: An Intimate Story of the Kennedy Years (Macmillan, 1983), ch. 18; Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor, Terence Kilmartin, trans. (Simon and Schuster,
1971), pp. 254-60; Strobe Talbott, ed. and trans., Khrushchev Remembers (Little, Brown, 1970-74), vol. 2, pp. 487-509; Bruce Miroff, Pragmatic Illusions: The Presidential Politics of John F. Kennedy (David McKay, 1976), pp. 64-82; Alexander L. George and Richard Smoke, Deterrence in American Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice (Columbia University Press, 1977), ch. 14; Montague Kern et al., The Kennedy Crises: The Press, the Presidency, and Foreign Policy (University of North Carolina Press, 1983), part 3; “Gun Thy Neighbor?,” Time, vol. 78, no. 7 (August 18, 1961), p. 58; “The Sheltered Life,” Time, vol. 78, no. 16 (October 20, 1961), pp. 21-25.

  [“Shake her hand first”]: quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 187.

  [“Missile gap”]: see George and Smoke, pp. 449-59; Arnold L. Horelick and Myron Rush, Strategic Tower and Soviet Foreign Policy (University of Chicago Press, 1966), chs. 8-9 passim; Roy E. Licklider, “The Missile Gap Controversy,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 85, no. 4 (December 1970), pp. 600-15; see also Ambrose, Eisenhower, pp. 312-14, 561-63.

  [Kennedy-McNamara discussions]: Parmet, JFK, p. 196.

  [Kennedy’s address]: July 25, 1961, in Kennedy Public Papers, vol. 1, pp. 533-50; Parmet, JFK, p. 197.

  [Truman on address]: quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 198.

  [Roosevelt on civilian defense and negotiations]: ibid.; Lash, p. 319.

  [Berlin Wall]: Schick, pp. 172-73; Smith, Defense, ch. 13; George and Smoke, pp. 437-42; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 394-97.

  [Cuban missile crisis]: David Detzer, The Brink: The Missile Crisis, 1962 (Crowell, 1979); Elie Abel, The Missile Crisis (Lippincott, 1966); Abram Chayes, The Cuban Missile Crisis (Oxford University Press, 1974); Herbert S. Dinnerstein, The Making of a Missile Crisis: October 1962 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976); Robert F. Kennedy, Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (Norton, 1969); Parmet, JFK, ch. 12; Martin, Stevenson, pp. 719-48; Sorensen, Kennedy, ch. 24; Thomas, chs. 107-10; Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 1, ch. 20, and vol. 2, pp. 509-14; Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, ch. 22; Szulc, Fidel, pp. 562-92; Parkinson, ch. 8; Jerome H. Kahan and Anne K. Long, “The Cuban Missile Crisis: A Study of Its Strategic Context,” Political Science Quarterly, vol. 87, no. 4 (December 1973), pp. 564-90; Roberta Wohlstetter, “Cuba and Pearl Harbor: Hindsight and Foresight,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 43, no. 4 (July 1965), pp. 691-707; George and Smoke, ch. 15; Andrés Suárez, Cuba: Castroism and Communism, 1959-1966, Joel Carmichael and Ernest Halperin, trans. (MIT Press, 1967), ch. 7; Carl A. Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, 1957-1964 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1966), ch. 8; Kern et al., part 4; Wills, chs. 21-22; Miroff, pp. 82-100; Raymond L. Garthoff, Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis (Brookings Institution, 1987); J. Anthony Lukas, “Class Reunion: Kennedy’s Men Relive the Cuban Missile Crisis,” New York Times Magazine, August 30, 1987, pp. 22-27, 51, 58-61, esp. pp. 58, 61.