American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

  [“Bullfight critics”]: quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 286.

  [Robert Kennedy on lessons learned]: Thirteen Days, pp. 124, 126.

  The Revolutionary Asians

  [“To those new states”]: Kennedy Public Papers, vol. 1, p. 1.

  [“Lenin or any of the Soviet”]: Charles Bohlen, quoted in Parmet, JFK, p. 191.

  335-6 [Khrushchev on Kennedy]: Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 2, p. 495.

  336 [U.S. and Cuba after missile crisis]: see Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, ch. 23; Warren Hinckle and William W. Turner, The Fish Is Red: The Story of the Secret War Against Castro (Harper, 1981); K. S. Karol, Guerrillas in Power: The Course of the Cuban Revolution, Arnold Pomerans, ed. (Hill and Wang, 1970), pp. 270-87.

  [Debray]: Debray, Revolution in the Revolution?: Armed Struggle and Political Struggle in Latin America, Bobbye Ortiz, trans. (Monthly Review Press, 1967); see also Hartmut Ramm, The Marxism of Regis Debray: Between Lenin and Guevara (Regents Press of Kansas, 1978), esp. ch. 4; Leo Huberman and Paul M. Sweezy, eds., Regis Debray and the Latin American Revolution (Monthly Review Press, 1968).

  [Guevara]: Daniel James, Ché Guevara (Stein & Day, 1969); Luis J. Gonzalez and Gustavo A. Sanchez Salazar, The Great Rebel: Che Guevara in Bolivia, Helen R. Lane, trans. (Grove Press, 1969); Ernesto “Che” Guevara, “La Guerra de Guerrillas,” in Franklin M. Osanka, ed.. Modern Guerrilla Warfare (Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), pp. 336-75; see also Parkinson, pp. 215-18; Karol, ch. 4.

  [Alliance for Progress]: see Jerome Levinson and Juan de Onís, The Alliance That Lost Its Way: A Critical Report on the Alliance for Progress (Quadrangle, 1970); Department of Economic Affairs, Pan American Union, The Alliance for Progress and Latin-American Development Prospects: A Five-Year Review, 1961-1965 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1967); Szulc, Winds of Revolution, ch. 6; Rader, ch. 9; Miroff, pp. 110-42; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, ch. 8; Abraham F. Lowenthal, “ ‘Liberal,’ ‘Radical,’ and ‘Bureaucratic’ Perspectives on U.S. Latin American Policy: The Alliance for Progress in Retrospect,” in Julio Cotler and Richard R. Fagen, eds., Latin America and the United States: The Changing Political Realities (Stanford University Press, 1974), pp. 212-35; Heraclio Bonilla, “Commentary on Lowenthal,” in ibid., pp. 236-37.

  337 [Stevenson’s missile crisis proposal]: see Martin, Stevenson and the World, pp. 723-24.

  [American Revolution in Asia]: Richard B. Morris, The Emerging Nations and the American Revolution (Harper, 1970), pp. 199-205, Nagasaki report quoted at p. 200, Sun Yat-sen at p. 202, Mao at pp. 204, 205.

  337-8 [1942 poll on locations of China and India]: Gary R. Hess, America Encounters India, 1941-1947 (Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), p. 2.

  338 [Churchill on limited application of Atlantic Charter]: ibid., pp. 28-29.

  [FDR and India during World War II]: ibid.; Christopher Thome, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain, and the War Against Japan, 1941-1945 (Oxford University Press, 1978), chs. 8, 14, 21, 28; see also, generally, Louis.

  [“Dear Friend”]: quoted in Hess, pp. 68-69.

  [“Restore to India”]: cable of July 25, 1942, quoted in ibid., p. 76.

  [“1,100,000,000 potential enemies”]: quoted in ibid., p. 155.

  [Postwar Indian criticism of U.S.]: see ibid., pp. 163-72 passim.

  339 [Gandhi’s “congratulatory” telegram]: quoted in ibid., p. 155.

  [Roosevelt’s voyage to India]: Eleanor Roosevelt, India and the Awakening East (Harper, 1953); Lash, pp. 195-205.

  [Indian conditions]: see Nair; Bourke-White; Ronald Segal, The Anguish of India (Stein & Day, 1965); Chester Bowles, Ambassador’s Report (Harper, 1954); Amlam Dalta, “India,” in Adamantios A. Pepelasis et al., Economic Development: Analysis and Case Studies (Harper, 1961), ch. 13; Donald K. Faris, To Plow with Hope (Harper, 1958), esp. part 1.

  [Senator Kennedy’s anticolonial speeches]: see Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 507-8; Parmet, Jack, pp. 399-408; Burns, Profile, pp. 193-200.

  [Representative Kennedy’s tour of Asia]: Parmet, Jack, pp. 226-28; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, p. 522; see also W. W. Rostow, The Diffusion of Power: An Essay in Recent History (Macmillan, 1972), p. 106.

  [“Key area”]: Schlesinger, Thousand Days, p. 522.

  [Foreign aid to India]: P. J. Eldridge, The Politics of Foreign Aid in India (Schocken, 1970), passim; see also Segal, ch. 4; Rostow, ch. 20.

  340 [India and the Soviet Union]: see Eldridge, ch. 4 and passim; Bowles, chs. 15-16; Arthur Stein, India and the Soviet Union: The Nehru Era (University of Chicago Press, 1969); Robert H. Donaldson, Soviet Policy towards India: Ideology and Strategy (Harvard University Press, 1974), chs. 3-5; see also Robert Trumbull, As I See India (William Sloane Associates, 1956), ch. 17.

  [Indian polls on U.S. and Soviet prestige]: see Eldridge, pp. 98-111 passim. [Chinese-Indian border conflict]: Neville Maxwell, India’s China War (Pantheon, 1970); John Kenneth Galbraith, Ambassador’s Journal: A Personal Account of the Kennedy Years (Houghton Mifflin, 1969), chs. 19-22.

  [Nehru in the U.S., 1961]: Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 523-26; Kennedy quoted at p. 526; Galbraith, pp. 245-51; India Information Services, The Prime Minister Comes to America (Information Service of India, n.d.).

  [Jackie Kennedy in India and Pakistan]: Galbraith, pp. 305-33 passim; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 530-31; Sorensen, Kennedy, p. 383.

  341 [Budding revolution in Southeast Asia]: see Osborne, esp. chs. 3-4; Erich H. Jacoby, Agrarian Unrest in Southeast Asia (Columbia University Press, 1949); Frank N. Trager, ed., Marxism in Southeast Asia: A Study of Four Countries (Stanford University Press, 1959); Virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, The Left Wing in Southeast Asia (William Sloane Associates, 1950).

  [Ho and the American Declaration of Independence]: see Marvin E. Gettleman et al., eds., Vietnam and America: A Documentary History (Grove Press, 1985), pp. 39-42; Morris, p. 220; Stanley Karnow, Vietnam (Viking, 1983), pp. 135-36; see also Jean Lacouture, Ho Chi Minh, Peter Wiles, trans. (Random House. 1968), ch. 14; David V. J. Bell and Allen E. Goodman, “Vietnam and the American Revolution,” Yale Review, vol. 61, no. l (October 1971), pp. 26-34.

  341 [Roosevelt and Indochina]: Gary R. Hess, “Franklin Roosevelt and Indochina,” Journal of American History, vol. 59, no. 2 (September 1972), pp. 353-68; Walter LaFeber, “Roosevelt, Churchill, and Indochina, 1942-45,” American Historical Review, vol. 80, no. 5 (December 1975), pp. 1277-95; Thorne, chs. 7, 13, 20, 27.

  [“Cheerful fecklessness”]: quoted in Hess, “Roosevelt and Indochina,” p. 356.

  342 [U.S. and Indochina, Truman and Eisenhower Administrations]: George McT. Kahin, Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam (Knopf, 1986), chs. 1-4; Karnow, chs. 4-6; Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Atlantic Monthly/Little, Brown, 1973), chs. 15-16; Leslie H. Gelb and Richard K. Betts, The Irony of Vietnam: The System Worked (Brookings Institution, 1979), pp. 36-68; K. M. Kail, What Washington Said: Administration Rhetoric and the Vietnam War, 1949-1969 (Harper, 1973), passim; Ronald H. Spector, Advice and Support: The Early Years of the United States Army in Vietnam, 1941-1960 (Free Press, 1985), parts 2-3; Jeanette P. Nichols, “United States Aid to South and Southeast Asia, 1950-1960,” Pacific Historical Review, vol. 32, no. 2 (1963), pp. 171-84.

  [President Kennedy and Indochina]: Kahin, chs. 5-6; Karnow, chs. 7-8; Gelb and Betts, ch. 3; Schlesingcr, Thousand Days, chs. 13, 20; Kail, passim; David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (Random House, 1972), chs. 1-16; William J. Rust, Kennedy in Vietnam (Scribner, 1985); Richard J. Walton, Cold War and Counterrevolution: The Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy (Viking, 1972), ch. 10; Kern et al., parts 2, 5; Maxwell D. Taylor, Swords and Plowshares (Norton, 1972), chs. 17-18, 23; Ralph L. Stavins, “Kennedy’s Private War,” New York Review of Books, vol. 17, no. 1 (July 22, 1971), pp. 20-32; Roger Hilsman, To Move a Nation (Doubleday, 1967), part 9.

  343 [“There are limits”]: quoted in Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy, p. 705. [Kennedy on danger of escalation]: see Kahin, p. 138.

  [Kennedy
and Diem coup]: Rust, chs. 6-10; Kahin, ch. 6; Schlesinger, Thousand Days, pp. 981-98; Karnow, ch. 8.

  [“Thwart a change”]: quoted in Karnow, p. 295.

  344 [Kennedy Administration assumptions about Third World aspirations]: see Robert A. Pakenham, Liberal America and the Third World (Princeton University Press, 1973), esp. pp. 59-85 and chs. 3-4.

  [Bowles on Kennedy Administration]: Bowles, Promises to Keep: My Years in Public Life, 1941-1969 (Harper, 1971), pp. 435-36, quoted at p. 435; see also Bowles, “Reminiscences,” Oval History Project, Columbia University (1963), pp. 841, 846.

  8. Striding Toward Freedom

  [“That institutional arrangement”]: Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (Harper, 1942), p. 269.

  [Erikson on Gandhi and his followers]: see Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi’s Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (Norton, 1969), p. 408; see also Richard H. Solomon, Mao’s Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture (University of California Press, 1971).

  Onward, Christian Soldiers

  [Martin Luther King, Jr., other leaders, and the civil rights struggle]: Primary correspondence (1955-68), esp. box 1, King Library and Archives, Martin Luther King, Jr., Center, Atlanta.

  [Parks]: Howell Raines, My Soul Is Rested: Movement Days in the Deep South Remembered (Putnam, 1977), pp. 40-42, 44; David L. Lewis, King (Praeger, 1970), pp. 47-48; George R. Metcalf, Black Profiles (McGraw-Hill, 1968), pp. 255-64.

  [“Time had just come”]: Parks radio interview with Sidney Roger, 1956 (Pacifica Radio Archive, Los Angeles); Raines, p. 44.

  349 [Highlander]: Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (Free Press, 1984), pp. 139-57; Frank Adams and Myles Horton, Unearthing Seeds of Fire: The Idea of Highlander (John F. Blair, 1975).

  [“A unified society”]: quoted in Adams and Horton, p. 122.

  349 [Montgomery boycott]: Martin Luther King, Jr., Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (Harper, 1958); Lewis, ch. 3; Stephen B. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound: The Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. (Harper, 1982), pp. 64-107; Morris, pp. 40-63; Raines, book 1, ch. 1.

  [“Beat this thing”]: Raines, p. 44.

  [“Gift of laughing people”]: King, Stride, p. 74.

  [King]: David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Morrow, 1986); Oates; Lewis; Hanes Walton, Jr., The Political Philosophy of Martin Luther King, Jr. (Greenwood Publishing, 1971); August Meier, “The Conservative Militant,” in C. Eric Lincoln, ed., Martin Luther King, Jr. (Hill and Wang, 1970), pp. 144-56; Sidney M. Willhelm, “Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Black Experience in America,” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 10, no. 1 (September 1979), pp. 3-19.

  350 [“Old Testament patriarch”]: Oates, p. 8.

  [“Real father”]: quoted in ibid., p. 12.

  [King’s studies]: see ibid., pp. 17-41; David J. Garrow, “The Intellectual Development of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Influences and Commentaries,” Union Seminary Quarterly Review, vol. 40 (January 1986), pp. 5-20; John J. Ansbro, Martin Luther King, Jr.: The Making of a Mind (Orbis Books, 1982).

  351 [King’s address at mass meeting]: King, Stride, pp. 61-63, quoted at p. 63; see also Oates, pp. 69-72.

  [“Military precision”]: quoted in King, Stride, p. 77.

  [“My feet is tired”]: quoted in Oates, pp. 76-77.

  351-2 [King and nonviolence]: ibid., pp. 23, 30-33, 77-79; Lewis, ch. 4 passim; Ansbro, esp. chs. 4, 7; Walton, esp. ch. 4; Warren E. Steinkraus, “Martin Luther King’s Personalism and Nonviolence,” Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 34, no. 1 (January-March 1973, pp. 97-111.

  [Till]: Oates, p. 62.

  [White southern ideology]: see W. F. Cash, The Mind of the South (Knopf, 1941); I. A. Newby, Jim Crow’s Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900-1930 (Louisiana State University Press, 1965); Lawrence J. Friedman, “The Search for Docility: Racial Thought in the White South, 1861-1917,” Phylon, vol. 31, no. 3 (Fall 1970), pp. 313-23; Neil R McMillen, The Citizens’ Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954-1964 (University of Illinois Press, 1971), part 3 passim; James G. Cook, The Segregationists (Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962); Julia K. Blackwelder, “Southern White Fundamentalists and the Civil Rights Movement,” Phylon, vol. 40, no. 4 (Winter 1979), pp. 334-41; David C. Colby, “White Violence and the Civil Rights Movement,” in Laurence W. Moreland et al., eds., Blacks in Southern Politics (Praegcr, 1987), pp. 31-48; Charles W. Chesnutt, The Marrow of Tradition (1901; reprinted by Arno Press, 1969); James W. Silver, Mississippi: The Closed Society (Harcourt, 1964); John Hope Franklin and Isidore Starr, eds., The Negro in Twentieth Century America (Vintage, 1967), pp. 34-38; Reese Cleghorn, “The Segs,” in Harold Hayes, ed., Smiling Through the Apocalypse: Esquire’s History of the Sixties (McCall Publishing, 1969), pp. 651-68; Bertram W. Doyle, The Etiquette of Race Relations in the South: A Study in Social Control (1937 reprinted by Kennikat Press, 1968).

  [“Other South”]: Carl N. Degler, The Other South: Southern Dissenters in the Nineteenth Century (Harper, 1974); William Peters, The Southern Temper (Doubleday, 1959), esp. chs. 7, 10.

  [“I’m a Jew”]: quoted in Peters, p. 126.

  [Golden’s plan]: ibid., pp. 125-26.

  [“Great period of Southern dissent”]: Degler, p. 371.

  [“Kill Him!”] Peters, p. 117.

  [Racist stereotypes]: see Cook, Segregationists, pp. 15, 17, 18, 51, 59, 213, 223, and passim.

  [Racism, anti-Semitism, anticommunism]: see McMillen, ch. 10; Cook, Segregationists, chs. 4, 7, and pp. 293-303.

  [Blacks in southern textbooks]: Melton McLaurin, “Images of Negroes in Deep South Public School State History Texts,” Phylon, vol. 32, no. 3 (Fall 1971), pp. 237-46, “bright rows” quoted at p. 239; see also Franklin and Starr, pp. 45-52.

  354 [Citizens’ Commis]: McMillen; Cook, Segregationists, ch. 2; Samuel DuBois Cook, “Political Movements and Organizations,” in Avery Leiserson, ed., The American South in The ***’s (Praeger, 1964), pp. 130-53, esp. pp. 133-44; see also David M. Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865-1965 (Doubleday,1965), esp. chs. 46-48; Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (Simon and Schuster, 1987), chs. 10-12.

  354 [Councils’ platform]: quoted in Cook, Segregationists, p. 51.

  [Southern politics]: V. O. Key, Jr., Southern Politics in State and Nation (Knopf, 1949); Numan V. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South During the 1950s (Louisiana State University Press, 1969); Bartley and Hugh D. Graham, Southern Politics and the Second Reconstruction (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), esp. ch. 3; Cook, “Political Movements”; Donald R. Matthews and James W. Prothro, Negroes and the New Southern Politics (Harcourt, 1966); Earl Black, “Southern Governors and Political Change: Campaign Stances on Racial Segregation and Economic Development, 1950-1969,” Journal of Polities, vol. 33 (1971), pp. 708-19; McMillen, esp. ch. 14; Cash, passim; Cook, Segregationists, esp. ch. 8; Silver, chs. 1-3; Robert Sherrill, Gothic Politics in the Deep South: Stars of the New Confederacy (Grossman, 1968).

  [Key on southern politics]: Key, p. 4.

  355 [“Employing the powerful weapons”]: Cook, “Political Movements,” p. 136.

  [Ashmore on restrictive legislation]: ibid., p. 133.

  [Black churches]: Morris, pp. 4-12; Benjamin E. Mays and Joseph W. Nicholson, The Negro’s Church (1933; reprinted by Negro Universities Press, 1969), ch. 17 and passim; Charles V. Hamilton, The Black Preacher in America (Morrow, 1972); James H. Cone, Black Theology and Black Power (Seabury Press, 1969), ch. 4; William H. Pipes, Say Amen, Brother!: Old-Time Negro Preaching, A Study in American Frustration (1951; reprinted by Negro Universities Press, 1970).

  [Frazier on Negro church]: quoted in Morris, p. 60.

  [“Common church culture”]: ibid., p. 11.

  356 [Formation of SCLC and its strategic foundering]: Garrow, Bearing, ch. 2; Oates, pp.
122-24, 129-30, 144-46, 156-58; Morris, chs. 4-5; Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1980 (Hill and Wang, 1981), pp. 64-66; Louis E. Lomax, The Negro Revolt (Harper, 1962), pp. 92-96.

  [“Unite community leaders”]: Morris, p. 46. [“Rare talent”]: Lerone Bennett, quoted in ibid., p. 94.

  [CORE]: August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (Oxford University Press, 1973), part 1; Morris, pp. 128-38. [Lunch-counter sit-ins]: Howard Zinn, SNCC: The New Abolitionists (Beacon Press, 1964), ch. 2; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Harvard University Press, 1981), ch. 1; Morris, ch. 9; Raines, book 1, ch. 2 passim; Meier and Rudwick, ch. 4; Miles Wolff, Lunch at the 5 & 10: The Greensboro Sit-ins (Stein & Day, 1970); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (Oxford University Press, 1980), ch. 3.

  [“I’m sorry”]: quoted in Raines, p. 76.

  357 [“Instilled within each other”]: Franklin McCain, quoted in ibid., p. 75. [“Like a fever”]: quoted in Carson, p. 12.

  [“Time to move”]: quoted in Morris, p. 201.

  [Baker]: Morris, pp. 102-4; Zinn, pp. 32-33; Ellen Cantarow and Susan Gushee O’Malley, “Ella Baker: Organizing for Civil Rights,” in Cantarow et al., Moving the Mountain: Women Working for Social Change (Feminist Press/McGraw-Hill, 1980), pp. 52-93; Mary King, Freedom Song (Morrow, 1987), pp. 42-43.