American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

  [Other charges against Nixon]: see Lukas, ch. 10; Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, The Final Days (Simon and Schuster, 1976), pp. 23-24.

  504-5 [Agnew]: Richard M. Cohen and Jules Witcover, A Heartbeat Away: The Investigation and Resignation of Spiro T. Agnew (Viking, 1974); Lukas, ch. 12.

  505 [Struggle over tapes]: Sirica, chs. 7-14; Lukas, chs. 11, 13-14 passim; Leon Jaworski, The Right and the Power (Reader’s Digest Press/Gulf Publishing, 1976); James Doyle, Not Above the Law (Morrow, 1977); Richard Ben-Veniste and George Frampton, Jr., Stonewall (Simon and Schuster, 1977).

  [“Immediate settlement”]: quoted in Lukas, p. 495.

  [U.S. v. Nixon]: 4 8 U.S. 683 (1974), quoted at pp. 71 2, 713; see also Leon Friedman, ed., United States v. Nixon: The President before the Supreme Court (Chelsea House, 1974).

  506 [“‘The President exploded’ ”]: Lukas, p. 518; see also John Osborne, “Judgment Days,” New Republic, vol. 171, nos. 6 & 7 (August 10 & 17, 1974), pp. 9-11.

  [Judiciary Committee]: Lukas, ch. 15, pp. 522-35; Frank Mankiewicz, U.S. v. Richard Nixon: The Final Crisis (Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co., 1975), pp. 183-237; Lang and Lang, ch. 7; Jimmy Breslin, How the Good Guys Finally Won (Viking, 1975).

  [“Make no mistake”]: quoted in Lukas, p. 522.

  [Committee polarization]: ibid., pp. 496-97.

  507 [“Fair and impartial”]: quoted in ibid., p. 508.

  [“Right in the gut”]: ibid., p. 509.

  [“Earlier today we heard”]: ibid., pp. 530-31.

  [“For years we Republicans”]: ibid., p. 531.

  [Committee votes on impeachment]: articles of impeachment reprinted in Mankiewicz, pp. 257-63, quoted at p. 257; roll calls given in ibid., pp. 259, 261-62.

  508 [June 21, 1972, tapes]: Time, vol. 104, no. 8 (August 19, 1974), pp. 18-19. [“He had lied to me”]: quoted in Lukas, p. 549.

  [“The painful conclusion”]: quoted in Woodward and Bernstein, Final Days, p. 379.

  [Final days]: ibid., pp. 403-56; Time, vol. 104, no. 8 (August 19, 1974), pp. 13B-22; Lukas, pp. 558-69; Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 1198-1214; see also Fawn M. Brodie, Richard Nixon: The Shaping of His Character (Norton, 1981), chs. 1, 34.

  [“We’ve asked Barry”]: Woodward and Bernstein, Final Days, pp. 413-17, quoted at pp. 415-16.

  509 [“As we look to the future”]: in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971-75), vol. 6, pp. 626-29, quoted at pp. 627, 628.

  [“Has a great heart”]: in ibid., pp. 630-32, quoted at pp. 630, 631, 632.

  510 [Mind of Watergate]: see Brodie, chs. 1, 34, and passim: Leo Rangell, The Mind of Watergate: An Exploration of the Compromise of Integrity (Norton, 1980); Douglas Muzzio, Watergate Games: Strategies, Choices, Outcomes (New York University Press, 1982); and sources cited for the introduction of ch. 11 supra.

  [“Covered up a little operation”]: quoted in Brodie, pp. 18-19.

  [“A little bit of Richard Nixon”]: ibid., p. 18.

  [“Swelling of the presidency”]: Cronin, “The Swelling of the Presidency,” in Paul J. Halpern, ed., Why Watergate? (Palisades Publishers, 1975), pp. 92-102, quoted at pp. 92, 93, 94.

  [“Mass of intrigue”]: George E. Reedy, The Twilight of the Presidency (New American Library, 1970), p. xiv.

  [“No one forced me”]: Magruder, p. 317.

  510-11 [Watergate, public opinion, the press]: Lang and Lang; David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media Power Politics (Free Press, 1981), pp. 158-66; Mankiewicz, pp. 81-141; John C. Spear, Presidents and the Press: The Nixon Legacy (MIT Press, 1984), ch. 7.

  511 [“More morally reprehensible”]: quoted in “Watergate Trails Kopechne Death in a National Poll,” New York Times, August 4, 1973, p. 10.

  [Newspaper endorsements, 1972 campaign]: Lang and Lang, p. 28.

  511 [Berman on “presidential imperialism”]: Berman, The New American Presidency (Little, Brown, 1986), p. 292; see also Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Houghton Mifflin, 1973), ch. 8 and passim; Samuel Hendel, “Separation of Powers Revisited in Light of Watergate,’ ” Western Political Quarterly, vol. 27, no. 4 (December 1974), pp. 575-88.

  512 [“A certain self-righteousness”]: Magruder, pp. 229-30.

  [“Capable of looking at us”]: Elizabeth Drew, Washington Journal: The Events of 1973-1974 (Random House, 1975), p. 392; see also Robert G. Meadow, “Information and Maturation in Children’s Evaluation of Government Leadership During Watergate,” Western Political Quarterly, vol. 35, no. 4 (December 1982), pp. 539-53.

  [“Look, Nixon’s no dope”]: quoted in Brodie, p. 18.

  Crime and Punishment

  [“Instinct to overreact”]: Magruder, p. 317.

  512-13 [Magruder on his teachers]: ibid., pp. 22, 25-26, 27-30, 306-7, 309, quoted on Schuman at p. 22, on “two wrongs” at p. 306; author’s personal correspondence with Magruder.

  513 [Fates of Watergate participants]: Donald P. Doane, “How Time Has Treated the Watergate Crew,” U.S. News & World Report, vol. 92, no. 23 (June 14, 1982), pp. 51-53; see also John W. Dean III, Lost Honor (Stanford Press, 1982), Epilogue.

  [Nixon after resignation]: Anson; Doane, p. 51; Newsweek, vol. 107, no. 20 (May 19, 1986), pp. 26-34; ibid., vol. 106, no. 18 (October 28, 1985), p. 45; see also Rangell, ch. 5-6.

  [“Not going to spend my time”]: quoted in Anson, p. 264.

  514 [Rise in white-collar crime]: W. H. Webster, “Examination of FBI Theory and Methodology Regarding White-Collar Crime Investigation and Prevention,” American Criminal Law Review; vol. 17, no. 3 (Winter 1980), pp. 275-86.

  [Difficulties in defining white-collar crime]: see Gilbert Geis, ed., White-Collar Criminal: The Offender in Business and the Professions (Atherton, 1968), esp. parts 1, 6. [“Intuitively satisfying”]: Gilbert Geis and Ezra Stotland, eds., White-Collar Crime: Theory and Research (Sage Publications, 1980), quoted at p. 11.

  [“Illegal acts committed”]: Donn B. Parker, “Computer-Related White-Collar Crime,” in ibid., pp. 199-220, quoted at p. 199.

  514-15 [Corporate crime]: John C. Coffee, Jr., “ ‘No Soul to Damn: No Body to Kick’: An Unscandalized Inquiry into the Problem of Corporate Punishment,” Michigan Law Review, vol. 79 (January 1981), pp. 386-459; W. Allen Spurgeon and Terence P. Pagan, “Criminal Liability for Life-Endangering Corporate Conduct,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, vol. 72, no. 2 (1981), pp. 400-33; Geis, part 2; Geis and Stotland, esp. chs. 3-7; Harold C. Barnett, “Corporate Capitalism, Corporate Crime,” Crime & Delinquency, vol. 27, no. 1 (January 1981), pp. 4-23.

  515 [Computer-related crime]: Parker, quoted at p. 219; see also M. E. Baldigo, “Computer Abuse—Past Is Prologue,” Internal Auditor, vol. 37, no. 2 (April 1980), pp. 90-95.

  [“Did you ever expect ”]: Edward, First Baron Thurlow, quoted in Coffee, p. 386 and 386 n. 1.

  [Pinto trial]: Spurgeon and Fagan, pp. 417-18, 426; New York Times, March 14, 1980, pp. 1, D12.

  [Firestone recall]: Spurgeon and Fagan, pp. 403 n. 11, 416 n. 76.

  516 [Concern with street over white-collar crime]: Laura Shill Schrager and James F. Short, Jr., “How Serious a Crime? Perceptions of Organizational and Common Crimes,” in Geis and Stotland, pp. 14-31.

  [Rise in offenses, 1960-83]: Edmund F. McGarrell and Timothy J. Flanagan, eds., Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics—1984 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1985), p. 380 (Table 3. 81).

  [Polls on crime]: ibid., pp. 170-79 (Tables 2.3-2.9); see also John E. Conklin, The Impact of Crime (Macmillan, 1975), ch. 2.

  [“Liberals first denied”]: Wilson, Thinking About Crime, rev. ed. (Vintage, 1985), p. 14.

  517 [Baby boom and crime rise]: Samuel Walker, Popular Justice: A History of American Criminal Justice (Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 205, 228.

  517 [Capitalist structures and crime]: Barnett; see also Jeffrey H. Reiman and Sue Headlee, “Marxism and Criminal Justice Policy,” Crime & Delinquency, v
ol. 27, no. 1 (January 1981), pp. 24-47.

  [Criminal cases filed and criminal trials completed in federal courts]: Richard A. Posner, The Federal Courts: Crisis and Reform (Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 61 (Table 3.1), 64 (Table 3.2), 68 (Table 3. 3); see also Sourcebook 1984, sects. 4-5.

  [Federal civil filings]: Posner, pp. 61 (Table 3.1), 64 (Table 3.2).

  518 [“Isolable, incidental features”]: Lloyd L. Weinreb, Denial of Justice: Criminal Process in the United States (Free Press, 1977), p. ix.

  [“Revolution in criminal procedure”]: ibid., p. viii.

  [Criminal justice analyses]: see Wilson, ch. 3, quoted on “reasonable cost” at p. 49, [“Assumptions about human nature”]: ibid., p. 145.

  519 [Critical legal studies]: Roberto M. Unger, The Critical Legal Studies Movement (Harvard University Press, 1986); Unger, Law in Modern Society: Toward a Criticism of Social Theory (Free Press, 1976); Mark Kelman, A Guide to Critical Legal Studies (Harvard University Press, 1987).

  [Weinreb on plea bargaining]: Weinreb, p. 86; see also Milton Heumann, Plea Bargaining (University of Chicago Press, 1978).

  [“Might control his subordinates”]: Walker, p. 216.

  520 [Attica]: Tom Wicker, A Time to Die (Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co., 1975); Herman Badillo and Milton Haynes, A Bill of No Rights: Attica and the American Prison System (Outerbridge & Lazard, 1972); New York State Special Commission on Attica, Attica (Praeger, 1972).

  [“Negative-negative!”]: quoted in Wicker, p. 276.

  [“What makes a man free?”]: Phillips, “What Makes a Man Free?,” in Celes Tisdale, ed.,

  Betcha Ain’t: Poems from Attica (Broadside Press, 1974), p. 38.

  Carter: The Arc of Morality

  521 [Carter]: Betty Glad, Jimmy Carter: In Search of the Great White House (Norton, 1980); James Wooten, Dasher (Summit, 1978); Jimmy Carter, A Government as Good as Its People (Simon and Schuster, 1977); William Lee Miller, Yankee from Georgia: The Emergence of Jimmy Carter (Times Books, 1978); James MacGregor Burns, The Power to Lead: The Crisis of the American Presidency (Simon and Schuster, 1984), ch. 1, from which I have borrowed or paraphrased.

  [“Not extraordinary governor”]: Glad, p. 187.

  [“Idealist without illusions”]: quoted in Burns, Power to Lead, p. 25.

  522 [Inaugural walk]: Glad, p. 409. [Massachusetts town meeting]: ibid., p. 411.

  [Carter and human rights]: Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith (Bantam, 1982), pp. 141-51; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977-1981 (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1983), pp. 122-29; Raymond L. Garthoff, Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Brookings Institution, 1985), chs. 17-18 passim; Seyom Brown, The Faces of Power (Columbia University Press, 1983), chs. 27-28; Gaddis Smith, Morality, Reason, and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years (Hill and Wang, 1986), pp. 49-55; Subject File, Human Rights, boxes HU-1 through HU-18, Jimmy Carter Library.

  [“Gained the trust”]: Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 141-42, quoted at p. 142.

  [“Demonstration of American idealism”]: ibid., p. 143.

  [“‘The first nation”]: quoted in ibid., p. 144.

  [“Craving, and now demanding”]: January 20, 1977, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977-82), vol. 1, part 1, pp. 1-4, quoted at pp. 2-3.

  [“Principled yet pragmatic”]: Cyrus R. Vance, Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (Simon and Schuster, 1983), p. 44.

  523 [“Accepted international standards”]: quoted in Garthoff, p. 569.

  [Administration attention to Soviet human rights violations]: Smith, pp. 67-68; Garthoff, pp. 568-74; see also Brzezinski, pp. 155-56.

  [Vance’s trip to Moscow]: Vance, pp. 53-56; Garthoff, p. 573.

  [“Defense of freedom”]: quoted in Garthott, p. 610.

  [Carter and Latin America]: Smith, pp. 109-10, quoted at p. 110.

  [Canal negotiations]: Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 152-85; Smith, pp. 110-15; Vance, ch. 8; Brzezinski, pp. 134-39; J. Michael Hogan, The Panama Canal in Domestic Politics: Domestic Advocacy and the Evolution of Policy (Southern Illinois University Press, 1986), pp. 83-131.

  [“We bought it”]: quoted in Smith, p. 1 12.

  [“Cooperative effort”]: quoted in Carter, Keeping Faith, p. 155.

  525 [“Plus one President”]: ibid., p. 184.

  [“Jews who had survived”]: ibid., p. 274; see also Carter, The Blood of Abraham: Insights into the Middle East (Houghton Mifflin, 1985), esp. pp. 31-36.

  [Carter and search for Middle East peace]: Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 273-429; Vance, chs. 9-1 1; Smith, pp. 157-68; Brown, ch. 29; Brzezinski, pp. 83-122, 234-88; William B. Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Brookings Institution, 1986); Eric Silver, Begin: The Haunted Prophet (Random House, 1984), chs. 19-20,.

  [“Had to postpone”]: quoted in Carter, Keeping Faith, p. 313.

  [“To go all out”]: quoted in ibid., p. 316.

  526 [“We are privileged”]: September 18, 1978, in Carter Public Papers, vol. 2, part 2, pp. 1533-37, quoted at p. 1537.

  [“Act of desperation”]: Carter, Keeping Faith, p. 416.

  [“Out of the negotiating business”]: quoted in ibid., p. 426.

  527 [The Yemens]: Garthoff, pp. 653-60; Smith, pp. 172-74; Robin Bidwell, The Two Yemens (Longman/Westview Press, 1983), pp. 262-337.

  [“Demonstrate our concern”]: quoted in Smith, p. 174.

  528 [Smith on American response]: ibid.

  [“Excessive Soviet buildup”]: address at Wake Forest University, March 17, 1978, in Carter Public Papers, vol. 2, part 1, pp. 529-35, quoted at p. 533; see also Garthoff; pp. 503-95.

  [Vance’s request for review]: Brzezinski, pp. 319-20; Vance quoted on “differing views” at p. 319; Vance, pp. 99-102; Garthoff, pp. 600-1.

  [Annapolis speech]: in Carter Public Papers, vol. 2, part 1, pp. 1052-57.

  [Press reaction]: Garthoff, p. 603. [Soviet view]: ibid., pp. 604-5.

  [“Any further delay”]: quoted in David Detzer, The Brink: Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 (Crowell, 1979), p. 234.

  [“Visceral anti-Sovietism”]: Vance, p. 394.

  [Brzezinski on Vance]: Brzezinski, p. 43.

  528-9 [Brzezinski’s trip to China]: ibid., pp. 202-19; Smith, pp. 88-89; Garthoff, pp. 701-10.

  529 [Deng in U.S. ]: Garthoff, pp. 718-26; Brzezinski, pp. 405-11; Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 202-11; Smith, pp. 92-94; Time, vol. 113, no. 7 (February 12, 1979), pp. 10-16.

  [Vienna summit]: Garthoff, pp. 728-40; Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 239-61; Brzezinski, pp. 340-44; Smith, pp. 208-11.

  [Afghanistan and SALT]: Garthoff, chs. 26-27 passim; Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 264-65; Brown, ch. 32; Vance, ch. 18; Smith, ch. 9; Glad, pp. 460-62.

  [Most profound disappointment]: Carter, Keeping Faith, p. 265.

  529-30 [Camp David consultations]: Carter, Keeping Faith, pp. 114-20; Newsweek, vol. 94, no. 4 (July 23, 1979), pp. 20-26; Glad, pp. 444-47.

  530 [“Rekindle our sense”]: July 15, 1979, in Carter Public Papers, vol. 3, part 2, pp. 1235-41, quoted at p. 1240.

  [“Not leading the country”]: quoted in Joseph A. Califano, “Getting Fired by Jimmy Carter,” Washington Post, May 24, 1981, pp. C1, C5, quoted at p. C5.

  [Carter on 60 Minutes]: “Carter: Toll of a Clockwork Presidency,” Washington Post, October 27, 1980, pp. A1, A4, quoted at p. A4.

  [Kennedy campaign]: Jack W. Germond and Jules Witcover, Blue Smoke and Mirrors (Viking, 1981), chs. 3-4, 7, 9; Glad, ch. 24 passim; Burns, Power to Lead, pp. 80-89.

  [“Umpteen billions”]: quoted in Burns, Power to Lead, p. 84.

  [Hostage seizure]: Smith, ch. 8; Brown, ch. 30; Vance, chs. 17, 19; Glad, pp. 458-60.

  531 [“Many forces at play”]: “Hamilton Jordan: Looking back,” Washington Post, December 2, 1980, p. A19; see also Hamilton Jordan, Crisis: The Last Year of the Carter Presidency (Putnam, 1982), pp. 378-81.
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  531 [“Any sense of political strategy”]: Hargrove, review of Glad, Jimmy Carter; in American Political Science Review, vol. 75, no. 2 (June 1981), pp. 493-95, quoted at p. 494.

  [Gulf between pronouncements and policies]: Samuel P. Huntington, “Renewed Hostility,” in Joseph S. Nye, Jr., ed., The Making of America’s Soviet Policy (Yale University Press, 1984), pp. 265-89, esp. p. 275; Burns, Power to Lead, pp. 29-30; John Steuart and Steve Lietman, “Carter’s Unkept ’76 Promises—A Time Bomb?,” New York Times, September 7, 1980, sect. 4, p. 19.

  Gun and Bible

  532 [“Destructive and irresponsible freedom”]: Solzhenitsyn, A World Split Apart, Irina I. Alberti, trans. (Harper, 1978), pp. 21, 37.

  [“On hands and knees”]: quoted in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Cycles of American History (Houghton Mifflin, 1986), p. 113.

  [“Object of our existence”]: ibid.

  [“Affirming the values”]: quoted in Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 2.

  [“Have we not”]: quoted in Schlesinger, p. 111.

  [Approaches to vice and virtue]: John Patrick Diggins, The Lost Soul of American Politics (Basic Books, 1984); J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton University Press, 1975), esp. chs. 14-15; John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Value sin America, 1776-1900 (Grossman, 1976); John Witherspoon, Lectures on Moral Philosophy, Varnum L. Collins, ed. (Princeton University Press, 1912); Garry Wills, Explaining America: The Federalist (Doubleday, 1981), esp. ch. 22; James MacGregor Burns, The Vineyard of Liberty (Knopf, 1982), pp. 58-63.

  533 [Lerner on 1950s mores]; Lerner, America as a Civilization (Simon and Schuster, 1957), p. 673.

  533-4 [Sexual studies]: Alfred C. Kinsey et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (W. B. Saunders, 1948), pp. 499, 550-51, 623, 670; Kinsey et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (W. B. Saunders, 1953), pp. 142, 286, 453, 505; Charles H. Whiteley and Winifred M. Whiteley, Sex & Morals (Basic Books, 1967); Michael G. Schofield, The Sexual Behaviour of Young People (Little, Brown, 1965); Lerner, pp. 679-87.

  534 [“Half Babylonian”]: Lerner, p. 686.