American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

  [“Soft” and “hard”]: Diggins, p. 335.

  [Campaign against sexual permissiveness]: Robert B. Fowler, A New Engagement: Evangelical Political Thought. 1966-1976 (William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1982), ch. 10; Louis A. Zurcher, Jr., and R. George Kirkpatrick, Citizens for Decency: Antipornography Crusades as Status Defense (University of Texas Press, 1976); Robert C. Liebman and Robert Wuthnow, eds., The New Christian Right (Aldine, 1983), esp. chs. 7-8, 10.

  534-5 [Commissions on pornography]: U.S. Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, Report (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), quoted at p. 27; Attorney General’s Commission on Pornography, Final Report (Department of Justice, 1986).

  535 [Dworkin-MacKinnon ordinance]: Rosemarie Tong, “Women, Pornography and the Law,” Williams Alumni Review, vol. 79, no. 1 (Fall 1986), pp. 3-11; Indianapolis Star, November 20, 1984, pp. 1, 6; Freedom to Read Foundation News, vol. 13, no. 1 (1986); Hudnut v. American Booksellers Association, Supreme Court affirming lower court’s judgment, February 24, 1986 (no. 85-1090); interview with John Swan; see also Catharine A. MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (Harvard University Press, 1987).

  [Tong on FACT]: Tong, p. 8.

  [“Usher in another era”]: ibid., p. 9.

  536 [“What scoundrels we would be”]: quoted in Kenneth Thompson, Moralism and Morality in Politics and Diplomacy (University Press of America, 1985), p. 8.

  [“Moral man” and “immoral society”]: Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (Scribner, 1941).

  [“Can be manageable”]: Thompson, p. 55.

  536 [Peace and nonviolence in early America]: Peter Brock, Pacifism in the United States from the Colonial Era to the First World War (Princeton University Press, 1968).

  [“Patriotic inclination”]: Piehl, Breaking Bread: The Catholic Worker and the Origin of Catholic Radicalism in America (Temple University Press, 1982), p. 54; see also Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (Yale University Press, 1972), pp. 330-42, 527-68.

  [Catholic Church and peace movement]: Eric O. Hanson, The Catholic Church in World Politics (Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 281-322; George Weigel, Tranquillitas Ordinis (Oxford University Press, 1987); Jim Castelli, The Bishops and the Bomb: Waging Peace in a Nuclear Age (Doubleday, 1983); James E. Dougherty, The Bishops and Nuclear Weapons (Archon Books, 1984); William A. Au, The Cross, the Flag, and the Bomb: American Catholics Debate War and Peace, 1960-1983 (Greenwood Press, 1985); Never Again War! (Office of Public Information, United Nations, 1965); Patricia Hunt-Perry, “Peace, Politics and Theology: The Institutional Catholic Church Enters the Peace Movement in the United States,” presented at the annual meeting of the International Society of Political Psychology, St. Catherine’s College, Oxford University, 1983.

  [Catholic switch on Vietnam]: quoted in Hunt-Perry, p. 36.

  [“Contrary to reason”]: reprinted in Never Again War!, pp. 81-126, quoted at p. 112.

  537 [“The Challenge of Peace”]: reprinted in Origins, vol. 13, 110, 1 (May 19, 1983), pp. 1-32, quoted at pp. 1, 30, 2, 27, 15, 18, 25, respectively.

  [“Traditional in the sense”]: Hunt-Perry, p. 21.

  [Issue of “just war”]; see “Challenge of Peace,” pp. 9-12; Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars (Basic Books, 1977); Terry Nardin, Law, Morality, and the Relations of States (Princeton University Press, 1983), esp. ch. 11; Alan Donagan, The Theory of Morality (University of Chicago Press, 1977), esp. chs. 1, 3.

  538 [“Most profound and searching”]: Kennan, “The Bishops’ Letter,” New York Times, May 1, 1983, sect. 4, p. 21 ; see also Kennan, The Nuclear Delusion: Soviet-American Relations in the Nuclear Age (Pantheon, 1982).

  [“Ruling and intellectual elites”]: Solzhenitsyn, World Split Apart, p. 11.

  [“Increasingly aggressive”]: quoted in Schlesinger, p. 57.

  [Universal Declaration of Human Rights]: reprinted in Never Again War!, pp. 127-34.

  539 [“Not enough to think”]: Van Dyke, “The Individual, the State, and Ethnic Communities in Political Theory,” in Donald P. Kommers and Gilburt D. Loescher, eds., Human Rights and American Foreign Policy (University of Notre Dame Press, 1979), pp. 36-62, quoted at p. 36.

  [“You know, professor”]: Eddison J. M. Zvobgo, “A Third World View,” in ibid., pp. 90-106, junior professor quoted at p. 97.

  [Vance on economic and political rights]: quoted in David P. Forsythe, Human Rights and World Politics (University of Nebraska Press, 1983), p. 95.

  540 [“Factor in the mobilization”]: ibid., p. 87.

  [“Evidence of the stability”]: Walzer, p. 19.

  13. The Culture of the Workshop

  541 [“Enormous laboratories”]: Max Lerner, America as a Civilization (Simon and Schuster, 1957), p. 209.

  [American Nobel Prize recipients]: Bernard Schlessinger and June H. Schlessinger, eds., The Who’s Who of Nobel Prize Winners (Oryx Press, 1986).

  541-2 [Advances in astronomy]: Martin Harwit, Cosmic Discovery: The Search, Scope, and Heritage of Astronomy (Basic Books, 1981); Patrick Moore, The Story of Astronomy (MacDonald and Jane’s, 1978); Otto Struve and Velta Zebergs, Astronomy of the 20th Century (Macmillan, 1962).

  542 [Advances in atomic research]: Alex Keller, The Infancy of Atomic Physics: Hercules in His Cradle (Clarendon Press, 1983); Physics Through the 1990s: Nuclear Physics (National Academy Press, 1986).

  [“Invention factory”]: Matthew Josephson. “Thomas Alva Edison,” in John A. Garraty, ed., Encyclopedia of American Biography (Harper. 1974), pp. 321-23, Edison quoted at p. 322.

  [“Business” of invention]: quoted in ibid., p. 322.

  542-3 [Development, applications, and implications of semiconductors]: Ernest Braun and Stuart Macdonald, Revolution in Miniature, 2nd ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1982), quoted at p. 6; T. R. Reid, The Chip (Simon and Schuster, 1984).

  543 [Integrated circuits in autos]: Braun and Macdonald, p. 202.

  The Dicing Game of Science

  [Salk and Sabin]: John R. Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis (Yale University Press, 1971), chs. 39, 41, and p. 439 (Figs. 58-59); Richard B. Morris et al., eds., Encyclopedia of American History, 6th ed. (Harper, 1982), p. 814.

  544 [Discovery of DNA]: James Watson, The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (Atheneum, 1968); Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology (Simon and Schuster, 1979), esp. part 1.

  [“New world”]: quoted in Judson, p. 581.

  [Einstein]: Ronald W. Clark, Einstein (World Publishing, 1971); Jamie Sayen, Einstein in America: The Scientist’s Conscience in the Age of Hitler and Hiroshima (Crown, 1985); Abraham Pais, “Subtle is the Lord … ”: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein (Clarendon Press, 1982); Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden, eds., Einstein on Peace (Schocken, 1968).

  [Einstein’s pathbreaking papers]: “On the Motion of Small Particles,” reprinted in Einstein, Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement, A. D. Cowper, trans. (London, 1926); “On a Heuristic Viewpoint,” in Annalen der Physik, ser. 4, vol. 17, pp. 132-48; “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” (special theory), in H. A. Lorentz et al., The Principle of Relativity, W. Perrett and G. B. Jeffery, trans. (Dover, 1952), pp. 35-65; “The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity,” in ibid., pp. 109-64; see also (Mark, chs. 4-5, 8-10 passim: Pais, parts 3-4 passim: Max Born, Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, Henry L. Brose, trans. (Methuen, 1924); Albert Einstein, Relativity: The Special and the General Theory, Robert B. Lawson, trans. (Crown, 1961 ); Gerald Tauber, ed., Albert Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity (Crown, 1979), esp. part 2.

  545 [“Awoke to find himself famous”]: Clark, p. 237; see also ibid., pp. 227-33; Pais, pp. 303-12; Tauber, part 3.

  [“Axiomatic basis”]: “The Fabric of the Universe,” London Times, November 7, 1919, p. 3.

  [“Peace that does not conceal”]: quoted in Clark, p. 219.

  [E
instein and League of Nations]: Clark, ch. 13 passim: Nathan and Norden, ch. 3.

  [Einstein and Zionism, interwar]: Clark, ch. 14 passim.

  [“Guileless child”]: quoted in Clark, p. 145.

  [Einstein and the Nazis]: Clark, chs. 15-17 passim: Nathan and Norden, chs. 6-7.

  [Einstein’s letter to FDR]: Clark, pp. 550-58, quoted at p. 556.

  [“I signed the letter”]: quoted in ibid., p. 554.

  [Einstein and the making of the atomic bomb]: ibid., ch. 20 passim: Sayen, pp. 117-23, 147-48, 171; Nathan and Norden, ch. 9; see also Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Simon and Schuster, 1986).

  [“Entire cities”]: quoted in Clark, p. 582.

  546 [Szilard appointment]: ibid., pp. 581-83.

  [Einstein’s refusal of Israeli presidency]: Clark, pp. 617-19; Nathan and Norden, pp. 571-74.

  [Defense of Heidelberg professor]: Clark, p. 597.

  [“Revolutionary way of non-cooperation”]: New York Times, June 12, 1953, pp. 1, 9, quoted at p. 9; see also Clark, pp. 597-99; Sayen, pp. 267-79; Nathan and Norden, ch. 16.

  [Times criticism of Einstein]: New York Times, June 13, 1953, p. 14.

  [“Intellectuals of this country”]: ibid., June 12, 1953, p. 9.

  [“Manifesto to Europeans”]: Clark, pp. 180-82; Nathan and Norden, pp. 3-8.

  [Einstein and world government movement]: Clark, pp. 587-91; Nathan and Norden, esp. ch. 13.

  [Russell manifesto]: Clark, pp. 624-27; Nathan and Norden, ch. 18.

  546-7 [Einstein’s search for grand unified theory]: Clark, pp. 405-9, 612-14; Pais, esp. ch. 17; see also Barry Parker, Einstein’s Dream: The Search For a Unified Theory of the Universe (Plenum Press, 1986); Tauber, part 7.

  547 [Born on general relativity]: quoted in Clark, p. 200.

  [“Further this simplification”]: ibid., p. 407.

  [“Old One” did not “throw dice”]: ibid., p. 340.

  [Snow on intellectual fragmentation]: Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution (Cambridge University Press, 1959); Snow, The Two Cultures and a Second Look (Cambridge University Press, 1964), esp. pp. 53-100.

  548 [“Achievements and promises”]: Morgenthau, Science: Servant or Master? (New American Library, 1972), p. 4; see also Farrington Daniels and Thomas M. Smith, eds., The Challenge of Our Times: Contemporary Trends in Science and Human Affairs as Seen by Twenty Professors at the University of Wisconsin (Burgess Publishing, 1953); George H. Daniels, Science in American Society (Knopf, 1971); Gerald James Holton, The Advancement of Science, and Its Burdens: The Jefferson Lectures and Other Essays (Cambridge University Press, 1986).

  [“When science fails”]: Morgenthau, pp. 46-47.

  [Collisions between science and politics]: Daniel S. Greenberg, The Politics of Pure Science (New American Library, 1967); Vannevar Bush, Pieces of the Action (Morrow, 1970); C. P. Snow, Science and Government (Harvard University Press, 1961); Jerome B. Wiesner, Where Science and Politics Meet (McGraw-Hill, 1965); Rae Goodell, The Visible Scientists (Little, Brown, 1977); Hilary Rose and Steven Rose, Science and Society (Penguin, 1969). [Army destruction of Japanese cyclotrons]: Greenberg, p. 118.

  549 [“Dominated outside of atomic energy”]: Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (Knopf, 1978), p. 365.

  [“Evangelical zeal”]: Alice Kimball Smith, A Peril and a Hope: The Scientists* Movement in America, 1945-47 (University of Chicago Press, 1965), p. 529.

  [“Seduction and rape”]: Greenberg, p. 125.

  [Oppenheimer]: Kevles, pp. 380-82, 391, Oppenheimer quoted at p. 391; U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, in the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1954); Philip M. Stern and Harold P. Green, The Oppenheimer Case: Security on Trial (Harper, 1969).

  550 [Einstein as patent clerk]: Clark, pp. 45-51, “eight hours of idleness” quoted at p. 51; Pais, pp. 46-47.

  [Maccoby on growth of technological systems]: “Some Issues of Technology: A Symposium,” Daedalus, vol. 109, no. 1 (Winter 1980), pp. 3-24, esp. p. 15.

  [Bell Laboratories]: N. Bruce Hannay and Robert E. McGinn, “The Anatomy of Modern Technology,” ibid., p. 40; see also Braun and Macdonald, ch. 4 passim: Jeremy Bernstein, Three Degrees Above Zero: Bell Labs in the Information Age (Scribner, 1984).

  [Information revolution]: see James R. Beniger, The Control Revolution (Harvard University Press, 1986).

  551 [“Seriously hampered”]: James Fallows, “Terminal Paranoia” (review of Theodore Roszak, The Cult of Information: The Folklore of Computers and the True Art of Thinking (Pantheon, 1986), New Republic, vol. 195, nos. 2-3 (July 14-21, 1986), pp. 30-32, Roszak quoted at p. 30.

  [“A general redefinition”]: Bolter, Turing’s Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age (University of North Carolina Press, 1984), p. 9.

  [“Internalize and even consciously adopt”]: Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (Knopf, 1984), p. 43; see also ibid., passim: Larry Hirschhorn, Beyond Mechanization: Work and Technology in a Postindustrial Age (MIT Press, 1984), ch. 7 and passim.

  [Ignored history of women’s technologies]: Cowan, “From Virginia Dare to Virginia Slims: Women and Technology in American Life,” Technology and Culture (University of Chicago Press), vol. 20, no. 1 (January 1979), pp. 51-63, quoted at p. 51. [Antitechnology attitudes among women in the 1970s]: ibid.,pp. 61-63.

  552 [Moses’s parkway bridges]: Langdon Winner, “Do Artifacts have Politics?,” Daedalus, vol. 109, no. 1 (Winter 1980), pp. 121-36, esp. pp. 123-24; Robert A. Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (Knopf, 1974), pp. 318-19, 546, 951-58.

  [“A weak value system”]: Joseph Weizenbaum, quoted in “Some Issues of Technology,” p. 3; see also ibid., p. 14, [“No way to run a railroad”]: Winner, p. 133.

  [Post-Sputnik rush]: Philip W. Jackson, “The Reform of Science Education: A Cautionary Tale,” Daedalus, vol. 112, no. 2 (Spring 1983), pp. 143-66, esp. pp. 147-48. [Graubard on science education]: Graubard, “Nothing to Fear, Much to Do,” ibid., pp. 231-48, quoted at p. 233.

  [Commercial textbooks]: Jackson, p. 150.

  [Graduate enrollment]: Theodore P. Perros, “U.S. Heads Down the Road to Scientific Dotage,” New York Times, December 8, 1986, p. A26.

  [“Content to be served”]: Kenneth Prewitt, “Scientific Illiteracy and Democratic Theory,” Daedalus, vol. 112, no. 2 (Spring 1983), pp. 49-64, Clifton R. Wharton quoted at p. 53; see also Manfred Stanley, The Technological Conscience: Survival and Dignity in an Age of Expertise (Free Press, 1978).

  The Rich and the Poor

  554 [Camp David conference]: Herbert Stein, Presidential Economics: The Making of Economic Policy from Roosevelt to Reagan and Beyond (Simon and Schuster, 1984), pp. 176-80; Leonard Silk, Economics in the Real World (Simon and Schuster, 1984), pp. 37-41; Richard Nixon, Memoirs (Grosset & Dunlap, 1978), pp. 518-20. [“Comprehensive new economic policy”]: Address to the Nation Outlining a New Economic Policy; “The Challenge of Peace,” August 15, 1971, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971-75), vol. 3, pp. 886-90, quoted at p. 890.

  [Stein on Camp David conference]: Stein, pp. 176-77.

  [Johnson’s economic policies]: ibid., ch. 4; Hobart Rowen, The Free Enterprisers: Kennedy, Johnson, and the Business Establishment (Putnam, 1964), chs. 3, 13; James L. Sundquist, Politics and Policy: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years (Brookings Institution, 1968), chs. 2-4, 11 passim.

  555 [Stein on Nixon’s ambivalence]: see Stein, p. 135.

  [Nixon’s economic policies]: A. James Reichley, Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations (Brookings Institution, 1981), chs. 3-5, 7-8, 10-11 passim; Leonard Silk, Nixonomics: How the Dismal Science of Free Enterprise Became the Black Art of Controls (Praeger, 1972); Stein, ch. 5; Rowland Evans, Jr., and Robert D. Novak, Nixon in the White House (Random House, 1971), ch. 7.

  [Penn Central collapse]: Silk,
Economics, p. 36; Robert Sobel, The Fallen Colossus (Weybright and Talley, 1977); Stephen Salsbury, No Way to Run a Railroad (McGraw-Hill, 1982).

  555-6 [Economic storms from abroad and Nixon’s reaction]: Silk, Nixonomics, chs. 9-12; Silk, Economics, ch. 4 passim; Stein, pp. 163-68.

  556 [“New Economic Policy” and reactions]: Nixon Public Papers, vol. 3, pp. 886-90, quoted at p. 886; see also Silk, Nixonomics, chs. 6-7; Stein, pp. 179-87; Time, vol. 98, no. 9 (August 30, 1971), pp. 4-18; New York Times, August 16, 1971, pp. 1, 14-15; ibid., August 17, 1971, p. 1.

  [“Total disaster”]: Stein, p. 186.

  557 [Stein on Nixon’s economic policies]: ibid., p. 207.

  [“That’s devaluation?”]: quoted in Silk, Economics, pp. 45-46.

  557-8 [Ford’s economic policies]: Reichley, chs. 14-15, 17-18 passim; Stein, pp. 209-16; Silk, Economics, ch. 6; John Osborne, White House Watch: The Ford Years (New Republic Books, 1977), pp. 67-76, 204-9, 229-35.

  [Carter on his “exact procedure”]: quoted in Laurence E. Lynn, Jr., and David DeF. Whitman, The President as Policymaker: Jimmy Carter and Welfare Reform (Temple University Press, 1981), p. 262.

  [Carter’s drift to the right in economic policies]: Betty Glad, Jimmy Carter: In Search of the Great White House (Norton, 1980), pp. 426-27; Stein, pp. 216-33; Silk, Nixonomics, chs. 10-11; William Greider, Secrets of the Temple: How the Federal Reserve Runs the Country (Simon and Schuster, 1988), part 1 passim.

  559 [Economy in December 1980]: Time. vol. 117, no. 3 (January 19, 1981), pp. 62, 63.

  [Democratic congressional opposition to Carter]: quoted in Glad, p. 427.

  [“Clings to what”]: quoted in Time, vol. 98, no. 9 (August 30, 1971), p. 5.

  [Hayek]: Friedrich August von Hayek, Road to Serfdom (University of Chicago Press, 1944); see also Silk, Economics, ch. 8.

  [New Deal Keynesian economics] : Alvin Harvey Hansen, Full Recovery or Stagnation ? (Norton, 1938); Stein, ch. 2.

  [Truman, Eisenhower, JFK, LBJ as Keynesians]: see Stein, chs. 3, 4.

  [“Now I am a Keynesian”]: quoted in ibid,, p. 135.