American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

anti-Soviet unrest, 257-8

  “liberation of captive peoples” goal of US, 256, 257-8

  Soviet domination over, 210-11, 221, 226, 229, 258, 469

  Yalta discussion on, 206-7, 211

  Eastland, James, 319-20, 323

  Eastman, Max, 202, 628

  Eccles, Marriner, 75, 102, 287

  “economic bill of rights” of FDR, 16, 202-3, 276-7, 344, 666

  economic equality, 77, 84, 538, 637, 667

  see also equality of opportunity

  Economic Opportunity Act, 566, 567

  economic planning, 77, 102-3, 560, 563-5

  corporate, 563, 573

  “democratic,” 565

  New Deal era failures, 130-1, 214-15

  economics, 553-4, 560-5, 571-2

  Chicago School of, 562

  Galbraith, 562-3

  Hayek, 560

  Keynesian, 102, 103, 130, 561-2

  laissez-faire views, 42, 560-1

  Marxist, neo-Marxist, 564-5

  monetarism, 562, 564

  supply-side, 639-40, 641

  economic security, 16, 41, 75, 122, 202-3, 213, 538-9, 560, 666

  economy:

  Carter policies, 558-60, 562, 639, 641

  centralization vs. decentralization debate of 1930s, 28, 74, 77, 103-4, 128

  Great Depression, 18-19, 31, 39-41

  interventionism in, 554-7, 560-1 (see also economic planning)

  New Deal programs, 23-7, 30-5, 37, 40-1, 62, 63-6, 75-6, 214-15 (see also New Deal)

  in 1950s, 264, 267, 555

  Nixon/Ford policies, 554-8

  Reagan years, 633, 638, 639-42;

  recession, 562, 640-1

  Roosevelt recession of 1937-39, 101-4, 114, 128, 130, 214

  rural South, 314, 315

  stagflation, 557-8, 559, 639

  wartime, 182-4, 186, 215

  see also banking; business; industry; inflation; unemployment

  Eden, Anthony, 195, 206, 255, 341, 405

  Edison, Thomas, 270, 542

  Editor & Publisher, 282

  education, 553, 594, 596-8, 663-5, 681-2

  federal role in, 553, 629;

  Eisenhower measures, 285, 320;

  Great Society (LBJ) measures, 389, 566; K

  ennedy measures, 370, 566;

  Reagan cuts, 639

  racial discrimination in, 236, 314, 321-3, 365, 370, 378 (see also schools)

  sex discrimination in, 433, 439

  trivializalion of, 597-8, 601

  Egypt, 257, 486-7, 574

  Camp David accord, 525-6

  Ehrenburg, Ilya, 295

  Ehrlichman, John, 467, 503-5, 513

  Einstein, Albert, 269, 544-7

  Eisenhower, David, 510

  Eisenhower, Dwight D,, 236, 246, 263, 266, 289, 448, 543, 593, 607

  and McCarthy, 249-50, 252-3, 258

  and Nixon, 250, 326

  as President, 252-63, 267, 277, 285, 418, 466, 467, 560-1, 573, 630; “Atoms for Peace” plan, 256; and civil rights issue, 322-3, 352, 359; domestic measures, 285, 320, 321, 322-3; evaluation and criticism, 255-6; foreign policy, 253-63, 285-7, 331, 340, 342, 490; and Korea, 254, 255, 418; military spending, 255, 256, 262; recession, 555; rejects atomic strikes and foreign adventurism, 255; and space program, 259, 579, 584, 585; Supreme Court appointments, 322, 652; U-2 incident, 261-3, 476

  presidential candidacies, 460, 479, 637; 1952, 246-8, 249-51, 253, 286, 312; 1956, 257, 286

  in World War II, 180, 198; as ETO commander, 199-201, 205, 206

  elderly, Townsend proposals for, 67

  elections and campaigns, 646-7

  congressional: 1918, 190, 191; 1932, 19; 1934, 37, 63, 70; 1936, 87; 1938, 108-11, 117-18; 1942, 190-1; 1946, 230; 1948, 238; 1950, 245; 1952, 253, 285; 1964, 390, 404; 1972, 461, 479; 1980, 629, 632, 639

  media use in, 312, 324, 613

  presidential, 1860 and 1896, 655-6; 1912, 118-19, 236; 1924, 11-12, 46, 416, 656; 1928, 656; 1932, 3-6, 10-18, 42, 61, 656, 662; 1936, 79-86, 87, 91, 117-18, 656; 1940, 161, 163-5, 656; 1944, 203-5; 1948, 235-9; 1952, 246-51, 253, 625, 637; 1956, 257, 286, 287, 637; 1960, 262, 323-6, 331, 512, 555, 625, 637: 1964, 380-2, 625, 637; 1968, 412-16, 555-625, 637: 1972, 458, 460-2, 469, 479, 481, 511, 557; 1976, 521, 558, 613, 625, 637-8, 656; 1980, 530, 559, 638, 649, 656; 1984, 641, 644, 649, 661; 1988, 657-8, 659, 661-2, 668, 669-70; primary system, 117, 647, 662; reform proposals, 650

  state: 1972, 53; 1934 (Wisconsin), 68; 1936, 87; 1938, 111; 1942, 190-1

  voter turnout decrease, 646, 661

  electric power, 13, 14, 264

  New Deal programs, 26, 76, 191, 214

  electronics industry, 268, 273, 542-3, 550-1, 572

  Eliot, T. S. 136, 233

  Ellison, Ralph, 297, 408, 615, 620

  Ellsberg, Daniel, 425-6, 499, 504, 513

  Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, 546

  Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 142, 338

  employment:

  discrimination in: ethnic, 308; outlawed, 378, 437; racial, 188-9, 315; sex, 81, 188, 433, 437, 439, 446-7, 457

  fair, 1948 and 1952 proposals, 236, 250

  full, inflationary effect of, 561

  wartime, 184, 188, 453, 648

  women in, 188, 453

  see also job programs

  End Poverty in California (EPIC), 69, 603, 604

  energy crisis, 1970s, 530, 574-5, 591

  Engels, Friedrich, 567

  entitlement programs, 41, 218, 641

  environmental pollution, 552, 574, 575

  environmental protection, 466, 629, 651

  Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974), 439

  Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 437, 439, 446

  equality, 124-5, 635, 667-9

  of condition, 124, 668

  economic, 77, 84, 538, 635, 667

  and liberty, 125, 267, 635, 679-80; as

  competing values, 631, 679

  of opportunity, 77, 122, 124-5, 278, 440, 454, 668, 679; FDR on, 16, 84, 203; JFK on, 370

  equal pay for equal work, 188, 538

  Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), 434, 438-9, 452, 457, 458-9, 628

  Erikson, Erik, 348

  Ervin, Sam, 502, 503-5

  Escape from Freedom (Fromm), 279

  estate tax, 76, 191, 639

  Ethiopia, 63, 79, 156, 527

  Europe:

  1939 war danger, 149-51, 153, 155-9

  postwar, 260, 294-6; goals of Eisenhower Administration for, 254, 256, 257-8; Marshall Plan aid to, 233, 265, 295, 496, 555; and NATO, 265; reaction to American literature in, 297-301; Soviet military buildup in, 528; Soviet sphere of domination, 210-11; Yalta discussions on, 206-7, 211

  World War II in, 159-64, 166-70, 177, 180, 182, 196, 199-201, 206, 211, 223-4; cross-Channel attack, 177-8, 180-1, 196-201, 207

  see also Eastern Europe; Western Europe

  European Economic Community, 538

  Evans, M. Stanton, 626

  Evers, Medgar, 372, 380

  executive branch (federal), 114-15, 647-8

  FDR’s reorganization bill, 105-6, 115, 131

  executive privilege, doctrine of, 505-6

  existentialism, 394

  Ezekiel, Mordecai, 102

  Fairbank, John K., 469

  Fair Deal, 236, 239, 320, 359, 461, 629, 639, 652

  fair employment, 1948 and 1952

  proposals for, 236, 250

  Fair Employment Practices Committee, 321

  Family Assistance Plan (FAP), 567

  Fanon, Frantz, 388

  Faraday, Michael, 269, 542, 547

  Farley, James, 4, 11, 14, 15, 23, 80, 82, 102, 110-11, 117, 164, 243

  Farmer, James, 356, 361-3, 371

  Farmer-Labor party, 68

  Farmers’ Alliance, 655

  farming, farmers, 16, 49, 64-6, 81, 114, 122, 656

  Depression effects on, 19

  FDR’s goals for, 5, 16, 35, 64

  foreclosures: 1930s, 19, 25; 1980s, 640

 
; New Deal programs for, 25, 40-1, 64-6, 81, 107, 213

  production increases, 268

  as special interest group, 107

  subsidies and price controls, 629; Eisenhower Administration, 285, 320; Fair Deal, 236; Nixon Administration, 466

  surpluses, 16, 64-5

  technological advances in, 268

  farm labor, 40, 54, 66, 81, 141, 268-9

  strikes, 49-50, 452

  Farm Security Administration, 104, 191

  Farrell, James T., 144

  fascism, 20, 54, 101, 137, 220, 279

  FDR charged with, 43

  Niebuhr and, 292-3

  Faulkner, William, 297, 298-9, 593, 605, 615, 620

  Fay, James H., 111

  FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), 230, 361, 514, 546

  in Watergate affair, 499-500, 501, 508

  Federal Art Project (FAP), 134-5

  federal budget, 559, 639

  balancing, 13, 79, 560; Carter’s problems, 559; FDR’s dilemma, 19, 21, 35, 64, 101, 103, 214-15, 374; Ford and, 558; Kennedy and, 374; Reagan and, 639, 640, 641; supply-side theory, 639

  deficit, 102, 103, 130, 215, 333, 555, 562; Reagan years, 633, 640, 645 see also federal spending

  Federal Employee Loyalty Program, 230

  federal regulation, see government regulation

  Federal Reserve Board, 75, 102, 555, 556, 562, 647

  federal revenue sharing, 466-7, 556

  federal spending, 466, 554-5, 558, 561-2

  Keynesian arguments, 102, 103, 130, 215, 561-2

  New Deal, 30, 64, 104, 107, 128, 214, 561

  Reagan cuts, 639

  special interest pressure for, 107, 641

  Roosevelt cuts and recession, 101 see also defense spending; federal budget

  Federal Theatre Project (FTP), 135-8

  Federal Writers’ Project (FWP), 139-41

  Federation of American Scientists, 549

  Feminine Mystique, The (Friedan), 436

  feminism, 436-60, 534-5, 618 (see also women’s liberation movement)

  Feminist Anti-Censorship Taskforce (FACT), 535

  feminist publications, 439, 447

  Feminists (group), 444

  Field, Marshall, III, 283

  Fields, Gracie, 184

  filibuster, 321, 322, 323, 360, 376-7, 647

  film industry, 601-3, 604-8, 612, 620

  Finland, 160-1, 221

  Firestone, Shulamith, 443-5

  Firestone Tire and Rubber Company, 515

  First Amendment rights, 281, 395, 426, 534-5, 651, 654, 667

  fiscal policy:

  FDR’s lack of strategy, 130-1, 214-15

  Keynesian, 102-3, 130, 561-2

  Nixon, 555

  see also federal spending

  Fish, Hamilton, 41, 165, 169, 190, 507

  Fish, Hamilton, Jr., 507

  FitzGerald, Frances, 406

  Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 296, 298, 568, 605, 608

  Fitzgerald, John “Honey Fitz,” 309-10

  Flacks, Richard, 422

  Flanagan, Hallie, 136-8

  Fletcher, Rear Adm. Frank Jack, 179

  Flink, James, 574

  folk music, 428-9

  Fonda, Jane, 499

  food stamp program, 639

  Ford, Gerald R., 488, 521

  as President, 557-8, 560, 586, 625, 630, 637; foreign policy, 488-9, 523, 524; pardon of Nixon, 498, 522, 558

  as presidential candidate, 613, 625, 637-8

  Ford, Henry, 21, 32, 543, 573, 576, 578

  Ford, Henry, II, 271, 573, 575, 576-7

  Ford Foundation, 296

  Ford Motor Company, 56, 99, 183, 187, 188, 485, 515, 572-3, 576-7

  as leader in automation, 272, 273, 274

  Foreign Affairs (journal), 229

  foreign affairs and policy, 489-96, 535-40

  bipartisanship in, 204, 235, 285-6, 493, 494, 497

  brinkmanship in, 286, 288

  Carter Administration, 522-9, 531, 644

  containment, 239, 286-7, 290, 491, 496

  economics, 555-6

  Eisenhower Administration, 253-63, 285-7, 331, 340, 342, 490

  Ford Administration, 488-9, 523, 524

  human rights, 496, 538-40, 638

  intellectual critics of cold war policies, 288-94

  Johnson Administration, 391, 401-6, 410-13, 467, 491, 524 (see also Vietnam War)

  Kennedy Administration, 328-9, 331-7, 339-44, 390, 491, 495-6, 524

  massive retaliation policy, 254, 286

  national interest and, 291-2

  Nixon Administration, 417-20, 422-6, 467-88, 491, 492-4, 496, 524

  power exercised in, 291-2, 496

  Reagan Administration, 537, 538, 624-5

  realist thinking in, 290-2, 293-4

  Realpolitik, 159, 216, 217, 223, 465, 488

  Roosevelt Administration, 35-7, 149-57, 158-74, 205-12, 234, 290, 328 (see also World War II)

  sphere-of-interest, balance-of-power policy, 232, 234, 239-40

  triangular diplomacy, 469, 474-6, 488, 496, 527

  Truman Administration, 229-30, 232-5, 239-43, 285-6, 289, 290, 340, 342, 402, 468, 490

  see also arms control; cold war; détente; internationalism; interventionism; isolationism; summit meetings; unilateralism

  foreign aid, 339-40, 669

  foreign trade, 35-6, 264, 555-6

  deficit, 557

  tariffs, 17, 36, 490, 556

  Forman, James, 371, 379, 384, 386

  Forrestal, James, 229

  Forsythe, David, 540

  Fortune magazine, 55, 98, 108, 273, 276, 280, 563

  Foster, William Z, 18

  Four Freedoms, 203, 266, 276, 281, 666, 672

  four-party politics, 119, 126, 236, 491

  Fourteenth Amendment, 321, 438, 653

  Fourth Amendment, 653

  Fox, Richard W., 293

  Frady, Marshall, 415

  France, 126, 295, 296

  Allied D-Day invasion, 199-201; deliberations on, 177-8, 180-1, 196-9, 207

  American writers celebrated in, 297-8

  appeasement of Hitler by, 157-8

  in Indochina, 171, 178, 208, 255, 341-2

  nuclear weapons of, 257

  in Suez crisis, 257

  in World War II, 159, 162-3; Vichy government, 171, 181

  Franco, Francisco, 149, 156, 181

  Frank, Anne, diary of, 619

  Frank, Jerome, 66

  Frankel, Charles, 666

  Frankel, Max, 497

  Frankenthaler, Helen, 621

  Frankfurter, Felix, 13, 28-9, 45, 73, 74, 77, 95, 112, 231, 321, 667

  Franklin, Benjamin, 593

  Frazier, E. Franklin, 355

  “freed intelligence,” 124

  freedom, 266-7, 275-81, 337-8, 532, 538-40, 598, 665-7, 679

  American literary treatment of, 299-301

  Atlantic Charier, 192, 338

  Bill of Rights, 281, 296, 375, 667

  civil-political vs. economic-social, 124, 303, 538-40, 666

  Declaration of the United Nations, 178

  definition, problems of, 121, 124, 276, 281, 539-40, 665-6, 672

  economic intervention and, 42, 560

  FDR’s achievements for, 131, 202-3, 213, 216, 218, 666; Four Freedoms, 203, 266, 276, 281, 666, 672

  Hitler’s perversion of, 202, 666

  as ideology, 276-8

  Kennedy’s concept and inaugural words, 326-7, 335, 370, 375

  Lippmann’s concept of, 289-90

  meaning for blacks, 371-2, 375, 401

  middle classes and, 278-9

  PEN Congress debate on, 617-20

  technology of, 266-75

  Third World demands for, 305-6, 337-44, 404, 407, 539

  Western tradition and sources, 539-40

  Freedom Democratic Party, Mississippi, 380-2

  “Freedom Summer,” 380, 384, 395

  Freeman, Jo, 443, 453, 455-6

  Freeman, Orville, 325


  free-marketers, 267, 627-9

  see also laissez-faire

  Free Speech Movement (FSM), 395-6, 397

  Freidel, Frank, 16, 24

  Freud, Sigmund, 274, 276, 436

  Frey, John, 55

  Frick, Henry Clay, 99, 100

  Friedan, Betty, 436-8, 439-41, 450, 454-5, 618

  Friedman, Milton, 562, 627

  Fromm, Erich, 279, 599

  Frost, Robert, 297, 299-300, 593, 615, 674

  Fulbright. J. William, 291

  fundamentalism, 448, 458, 534, 627-8

  Gable, Clark, 166, 605, 606

  Gaddis, John Lewis, 496

  Gagarin, Yuri A., 580, 581, 584

  Gagey, Edmond, 137

  Gaither, H. Rowan, Jr., 259

  Galbraith, John Kenneth, 287, 340, 343, 510, 562-3, 573

  Galenson, Walter, 98

  Gandhi, Mohandas, 338, 339, 348, 352, 357, 364, 409, 421, 461, 546

  Gannett, Frank, 105

  Gans, Herbert, 622

  GAP Communications, 613

  Garfield, James R., 122

  Garner, John, 11, 14, 22, 37, 93, 96, 110, 126, 159, 164

  Garthoff, Raymond, 487

  Garvey, Marcus, 385

  gays, see homosexuals; lesbians

  Gaza Strip, 482, 525-6

  Gemini, Project, 582

  General Electric Company, 268, 607

  General Motors Corporation, 42, 43, 56, 98, 557, 572, 575-6

  strikes: 1937, 98-9; 1970, 573

  General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (Keynes), 130

  genetic experimentation, 552

  Geneva Accords on Vietnam (1954), 342, 405

  Geneva summit meeting (1955), 257

  George, Walter, 110-11, 116, 118, 119, 126, 285, 319

  George VI, King, 199

  Gephardt, Richard, 641

  Germany, 150, 219

  Nazi regime, 20, 149-51, 166, 207; acts of aggression, 149, 157-8, 159; Axis member, 157, 159, 167, 173, 176; Holocaust, 218-19, 267; pact with Soviet Union, 151, 159, 197; in World War II, 159, 161-4, 166, 168, 175-6, 177-8, 180-1, 197, 200, 206, 211, 223-4

  postwar, 224, 240; reunification issue, 256, 332 (see also West Germany)

  Giap, Vo Nguyen, 419, 480

  Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 269, 270, 542

  Gide, André, 298

  Gilford, Walter, 71

  gift tax, 76, 191, 639

  Gilder, George F., 627

  Ginsberg, Allen, 394, 430

  Ginzburg, Aleksandr, 523

  Giraud, Henri, 195

  Girdler, Thomas, 100

  Gitlin, Todd, 431, 432

  Glad, Betty, 521, 559, 643

  Glass, Carter, 24, 30, 75, 110, 118

  Glenn, John, 580-1, 586

  Goebbels, Joseph, 224

  Golan Heights, 486-7

  Gold Clause cases, Supreme Court, 72, 89

  Golden, Harry, 353

  gold policy: