Franco

by Enrique Moradiellos

  97 Francisco Moret Messerli, Conmemoraciones y fechas de la España nacional-sindicalista (Madrid: Delegación Nacional de Prensa y Propaganda de FET, 1942), pp. 71–2.

  98 Luis del Valle Pascual, Democracia y Jerarquía (Zaragoza: Atheneum, 1942), pp. 9, 162–4, 218 and 239 (first published 1938).

  99 They all appear and are discussed, to a greater or lesser degree, in the already mentioned works of Ferran Gallego, Ismael Saz, Alberto Reig Tapia, Benjamín Rivaya and José Manuel Cuenca Toribio.

  100 An updated analysis of the institutional evolution is in Miguel Ángel Giménez Martínez, El Estado franquista. Fundamentos ideológicos, bases legales y sistema institucional (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 2014). An instruction to the debate on ‘the nature of the Franco regime’ is in Enrique Moradiellos, ‘Franco y el franquismo en tinta sobre papel: narrativas sobre el régimen y su caudillo’, in Julián Casanova (ed.), 40 años con Franco (Barcelona: Crítica, 2015), ch. 9. Jorge Novella Suárez analyses well the transition of Francoist ideology since the days of Conde to the final formulations of Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora in El pensamiento reaccionario español, chs 12 and 13.

  101 Manuel Fraga Iribarne, Así se gobierna España (Madrid: Oficina de Información Diplomática, 1951), pp. 36–7 and 54.

  102 Torcuato Fernández-Miranda, El hombre y la sociedad (Madrid: Ediciones Doncel-Delegación Nacional de Juventudes, 1963, fourth edition), p. 190.

  103 José Zafra Valverde, Régimen político de España (Pamplona: Universidad de Navarra, 1973), pp. 164–7, 195 and 200.

  104 Ismael Saz, ‘Franco, ¿Caudillo fascista? Sobre las sucesivas y contradictorias concepciones falangistas del Caudillaje franquista’, in I. Saz, Las caras del franquismo (Granada, Comares, 2013), ch. 7, pp. 113–33.

  105 Quoted in Badía, ‘Las formas históricas de poder político y sus legitimidades’, pp. 97 and 112.

  106 Luis Sánchez Agesta expressly mentioned it in his well-known manual Lecciones de Derecho Político (Granada: Librería Prieto, 1959), p. 471. The political context of this crucial debate arises in Álvaro Soto Carmona, ¿Atado y bien atado? Institucionalización y crisis del franquismo, (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2005); Cristina Palomares, The Quest for Survival after Franco: Moderate Francoism and the Slow Journey to the Polls, 1964–1977 (Eastbourne: Sussex Academic Press, 2004); and Carme Molinero and Pere Ysàs, La anatomía del franquismo. De la supervivencia a la agonía, 1945–1977 (Barcelona: Crítica, 2008).

  107 Declarations of Franco to the editor of the newspaper Arriba, 23 January 1955, quoted in Valverde, El sistema político en las décadas de Franco, p. 395. The formula of Fueyo was published in the journal Pueblo, organ of the Organización Sindical franquista. It is reproduced in Raymond Carr and Juan Pablo Fusi, España, de la dictadura a la democracia (Barcelona: Planeta, 1979), p. 236.

  108 The ideas of Fernández-Miranda (in 1973) is in Pilar and Alfonso Fernández-Miranda, Lo que el rey me ha pedido. Torcuato Fernández-Miranda y la Reforma Política (Barcelona: Plaza y Janés, 1995), pp. 17 and 55–6. The earlier declaration by Fraga Iribane reproduced in Carr and Fusi, España, de la dictadura a la democracia, p. 266.

  109 Statement of one of the members of the last government of Franco in 1976, reproduced in Carr and Fusi, España, de la dictadura a la democracia, p. 236.

  110 Words of a confidential report of Guy de la Tournelle in October 1959, reproduced in Álvaro Fleites Marcos, De Gaulle y España (Avilés: Azucel, 2009), p. 152.

  111 Salvador de Madariaga, General, márchese usted (New York: Ediciones Ibéricas, 1959), p. 10.

  112 Juan Pablo Fusi, Franco. Autoritarismo y poder personal (Madrid: El País, 1985), p. 15.

  3: The Regime: A Complex Dictatorship

  1 Javier Tusell, La dictadura de Franco (Madrid: Alianza, 1988), p. 111.

  2 Raymond Carr and Juan Pablo Fusi, España, de la dictadura a la democracia (Barcelona: Planeta, 1979), p. 11.

  3 Borja de Riquer, La dictadura de Franco (Barcelona: Crítica, 2010), pp. xv–xvi.

  4 Tusell, La dictadura de Franco, p. 263.

  5 Stanley G. Payne, El régimen de Franco (Madrid: Alianza, 1987), p. 651, published in English as The Franco Regime (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987).

  6 Robert O. Paxton, ‘Franco’s Spain in Comparative Perspective’, in Miguel Ángel Ruiz Carnicer (ed.), Falange. Las culturas políticas del fascismo en la España de Franco. 1936–1975 (Zaragoza: Institución Cultural Fernando el Católico, 2013), pp. 13–23 (quotation on pp. 22–3).

  7 A general overview of such diverse regimes is in Gerhard Besier and Katarzyna Stoklosa, European Dictatorships: A Comparative History of the Twentieth Century (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013).

  8 Quoted in Josue Derman, Max Weber in Politics and Social Thought: From Charisma to Canonization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 156.

  9 Carl Schmitt, Dictatorship (Cambridge: Polity, 2013).

  10 Manuela Azaña, Memorias políticas y de guerra, 1931–1939 (Barcelona: Grijalbo-Mondadori, 1978), pp. 313 and 330.

  11 Ricardo Chueca Rodríguez and José Ramón Montero Gibert, ‘El fascismo en España: elementos para una identificación’, Historia Contemporánea 8 (1992), pp. 215–47 (quote on p. 219).

  12 Stanley G. Payne, Falange. Historia del Fascismo español (Paris: Ruedo Ibérico, 1965), p. 110.

  13 Francisco Franco Salgado-Araujo, Mis conversaciones privadas con Franco (Barcelona: Planeta, 1976), p. 142.

  14 Jesús Palacios and Stanley G. Payne, Franco, mi padre (Madrid: Esfera de los Libros, 2008), pp. 74–5.

  15 Quoted in Paul Preston, Leviatán. Antología (Madrid: Turner, 1976), pp. 295–6 and 302–3.

  16 Both quotes in Walter Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader’s Guide (Aldershot: Wildwood House, 1988), pp. 420 and 430; and David Beetham, Marxists in Face of Fascism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983), pp. 22 and 295.

  17 Dolores Ibárruri (ed.), Guerra y revolución en España (Moscow: Progreso, 1966), vol. 1, p. 305.

  18 Quoted in Enrique Moradiellos, La perfidia de Albión. El gobierno británico y la guerra civil española (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1996), p. 217.

  19 ‘Notas sobre la situación internacional’, 11 November 1942, Archivo General de la Universidad de Navarra, Fondo Carrero Blanco, Serie ‘Política Internacional’.

  20 Salvador de Madariaga, General, Márchese usted (New York: Ibérica, 1959), p. 15.

  21 Text of the final communiqué of the Potsdam Conference. Quoted in Enrique Moradiellos, ‘The Potsdam Conference and the Spanish Problem’, Contemporary European History 10/1 (2001), pp. 73–90 (quotation on p. 73).

  22 Giuliana Di Febo and Santos Juliá, El Franquismo. Una introducción (Barcelona: Crítica, 2012), p. 7.

  23 Law of 29 November 1878, quoted in José Antonio Olmeda Gómez, Las Fuerzas Armadas en el Estado Franquista (Madrid: El Arquero, 1988), p. 94.

  24 Emilio Mola, Obras completas (Valladolid: Santarén, 1940), p. 1184.

  25 Confession of Franco to the writer José María Pemán in the middle of August 1936, quoted in Paul Preston, Franco: A Biography (London: HarperCollins, 1993), p. 176. Franco’s statement to the Portuguese journal O Seculo, mid-August 1936 in José Emilio Díez, Colección de proclamas y arengas del Excmo. Sr. General D. Francisco Franco (Seville: M. Carmona, 1937), p. 92.

  26 Quoted in Julio Rodríguez Puértolas, Literatura fascista española. Antología (Madrid: Akal, 1987), pp. 520–1.

  27 Quoted by Javier Tusell, Franco en la guerra civil. Una biografía política (Barcelona: Tusquets, 1992), p. 302.

  28 Boletín Oficial del Estado, 31 January 1938.

  29 Roger Eatwell, ‘Introduction: New Styles of Dictatorship and Leadership in Interwar Europe’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7/2 (2006), pp. 127–37. Roberto Cavalli, Carisma. La qualitá straordinaria del leader (Rome: Laterza, 1995).

  30 Torcuato Fernández-Miranda, El hombre y la sociedad (Madrid: Delegación Nacional d
e Juventudes, 1960), pp. 188–90, with original emphasis

  31 Enzo Traverso, El totalitarismo. Historia de un debate (Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 2013). Karl Dietrich Bracher, The Age of Ideologies: A History of Political Thought in the Twentieth Century (London: Methuen, 1985), pp. 81–6.

  32 Emilio Gentile, El Fascismo. Historia e interpretación (Madrid: Alianza, 2004), pp. 99–101 and ch. 11. The aphorism of Mussolini, formulated in 1925, is in Traverso, El totalitarismo, p. 25.

  33 Quoted in Franz Neumann, Behemoth. Pensamiento y acción en el nacional-socialismo (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1983), p. 69, published in English as Behemoth (New York: Octagon Press, 1983).

  34 Annotation of 28 November 1957. Franco Salgado-Araujo, Mis conversaciones privadas con Franco, p. 220.

  35 Traverso, El totalitarismo, p. 162.

  36 Richard Overy, Dictadores. La Alemania de Hitler y la Unión Soviética de Stalin (Madrid: Tusquets, 2010), pp. 719–20; first published in English as Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia (London: Allen Lane, 2004).

  37 Traverso, El totalitarismo, p. 145.

  38 Juan J. Linz, ‘An Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Spain’, in Erik Nard and Yrjo Littunen (eds), Cleavages, Ideologies, and Party Systems (Helsinki: Westermarck Society, 1964). Their theses were reworked and expanded in Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes (London: Lynne Rienner, 2000).

  39 Quoted in José Félix Tezanos, ‘Notas para una interpretación sociológica del Franquismo’, Sistema. Revista de Ciencias Sociales 23 (1978), pp. 47–99 (the quote from Germani is on p. 61). The original work by Germani is Authoritarianism, Fascism and National Populism (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1978).

  40 Paul Preston, The Politics of Revenge: Fascism and the Military in Twentieth Century Spain (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 11.

  41 Julián Casanova, El pasado oculto. Fascismo y violencia en Aragón, 1936–1939 (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1992), pp. 3–25.

  42 Santiago Montero Díaz, Fascismo (Valencia: Cuadernos de Cultura, 1932).

  43 The words of Karl Dietrich Bracher, Controversias de historia contemporánea sobre fascismo, totalitarismo y democracia (Barcelona: Alfa, 1983), p. 33.

  44 Ricardo Chueca and José Ramón Montero, ‘El fascismo en España: elementos para una interpretación’, Historia Contemporánea 8 (1992), p. 246.

  45 Antonio Elorza ‘Mitos y símbolos de una dictadura’, Bulletin d’Histoire Contemporaine de l’Espagne 24 (1996), p. 49; Antonio Elorza, ‘Las raíces ideológicas del franquismo’, in Antonio Elorza, La modernización política de España (Madrid: Endymion, 1990), p. 442.

  46 Julio Aróstegui, ‘Los componentes sociales y políticos’, in Manuel Tuñón de Lara (ed.), La guerra civil española. 50 años después (Barcelona: Labor, 1986), pp. 61, 97 and 102.

  47 Aristotle Kallis and António Costa Pinto, ‘Conclusion’, in Aristotle Kallis and António Costa Pinto (eds), Rethinking Fascism and Dictatorship in Europe (New York: Palgrave Macnillan, 2014), p. 275. See also Aristotle Kallis, ‘Fascism, Para-Fascism and Fascistization: On the Similarities of Three Conceptual Categories’, European History Quarterly 33/2 (2003), pp. 219–49.

  48 The words of Ismael Saz, Fascismo y Franquismo (Valencia: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Valencia, 2004), p. 86.

  49 Saz, Fascismo y Franquismo, pp. 88–9.

  50 Ferran Gallego, El Evangelio Fascista. La formación de la cultura política del franquismo (Barcelona: Crítica, 2014).

  51 Gallego, El Evangelio Fascista, p. 913.

  52 Gregory M. Luebert, Liberalism, Fascism or Social Democracy: Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 276.

  53 Gentile, Fascismo, p. 59.

  54 Emilio Gentile, ‘Introducción al fascismo’, in Javier Tusell, Emilio Gentile, Giuliana Di Febo and Susana Sueiro (eds), Fascismo y Franquismo. Cara a cara. Una perspectiva histórica (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2004), p. 18.

  55 Robert O. Paxton, Anatomía del fascismo (Barcelona: Península, 2005), p. 98; first published in English as The Anatomy of Fascism (London: Penguin, 2004).

  56 Traverso, El totalitarismo, p. 27.

  57 Julián Sanz Hoya, ‘Falangismo y dictadura. Una revisión de la historiografía sobre el fascismo español’, in Ruiz Carnicer (ed.), Falange, pp. 25–60 (quote on pp. 58–9).

  58 Francisco Franco, Discursos y Mensajes del Jefe del Estado, 1951–1954 (Madrid: Publicaciones Españolas, 1955), p. 306. Reproduced in Abc, 17 April 1953.

  59 Speech reproduced in the newspaper Abc, 31 December 1964.

  60 Franco Salgado-Araujo, Mis conversaciones privadas con Franco, p. 156. Annotation of 31 December 1955.

  61 Tusell, La dictadura franquista, p. 263.

  62 Payne, El régimen de Franco, p. 651.

  63 Miguel Ángel Giménez Martínez, El Estado Franquista. Fundamentos ideológicos, bases legales y sistema institucional (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Sociales, 2014), p. 29.

  64 The quotations by Mann, Berr and Febvre are in Donald R. Kelley, ‘Ideas of Periodization in the West’, in Q. Edward Wang and Franz L. Fillafer (eds), The Many Faces of Clio: Cross-Cultural Approaches to Historiography (Oxford: Berghahn, 2007), p. 19.

  65 José Ortega y Gasset, ‘Prólogo’, in Wilhelm Dilthey, Introducción a las ciencias del espíritu (Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1966), p. 15.

  66 A recent example in English of this consensus can be seen in the title and work of Nigel Townson: Spain Transformed: The Franco Dictatorship, 1959–1975 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).

  67 Tusell, La dictadura de Franco, pp. 249–50.

  68 The proceedings of the conference were published as Javier Tusell (coord.), El Régimen de Franco, 1936–1975. Política y Relaciones Exteriores (Madrid: UNED, 1993).

  69 Gabriel Tortella, El desarrollo de la España contemporánea. Historia económica de los siglos XIX y XX (Madrid: Alianza, 1994), pp. 204 and 385.

  70 Raymond Carr (ed.), La época de Franco, 1939–1975. I: Política, Ejército, Iglesia, Economía, vol. 41/1 (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1996).

  71 Encarna Nicolás and Alicia Alted Vigil, Disidencias en el Franquismo, 1939–1975 (Murcia: Diego Marín Editor, 1999).

  72 Carlos Barciela, Autarquía y mercado negro. El fracaso económico del Primer Franquismo (1939–1959) (Barcelona: Crítica, 2003).

  73 Special issue of the journal Ayer, 33 (1999).

  74 Tusell, La dictadura de Franco, p. 250.

  75 Giuliana Di Febo and Santos Juliá, El Franquismo (Barcelona: Crítica, 2012), p. 7.

  76 Carme Molinero and Pere Ysàs, Historia de España. Historia política, 1939–2000 (Madrid: Istmo, 2001).

  77 Enrique Moradiellos, El Franquismo. Política y sociedad (Madrid: Síntesis, 2000).

  78 Manuel Tuñón de Lara, Historia de España (Barcelona: Labor, 1991), pp. 577–8.

  79 Preston, The Politics of Revenge, pp. 112–13.

  80 Payne, El régimen de Franco, pp. 651–2.

  81 Juan Pablo Fusi, Franco. Autoritarismo y poder personal (Madrid: El País, 1985), pp. 73–4.

  82 José Luis García Delgado and Juan Carlos Jiménez, Un siglo de España. La economía (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 1999), p. 114.

  83 Jordi Gracia and Miguel Ángel Ruiz Carnicer, El Franquismo. Cultura y vida cotidiana (Madrid: Síntesis, 2001).

  84 Stanley G. Payne, in Raymond Carr (ed.), Historia de España Menéndez Pidal, Vol. 41/1 (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1996), p. 6.

  85 Salvador de Madariaga, España. Ensayo de historia contemporánea (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1979), p. 511.

  86 De Riquer, La dictadura franquista, p. xviii.

  FURTHER READING

  General Studies on the Franco Regime

  First and foremost, it is worth mentioning the dictionaries and general histories of contemporary Spain that have come out in recent times and that address, usually with perception, the times of Francoism and some of its major facets. In order of publication, one might cite the following si
x works for their high interpretive quality: Francisco J. Romero Salvadó, Twentieth-Century Spain: Politics and Society in Spain, 1898–1998 (London: Macmillan, 1999); Mary Vincent, Spain, 1833–2002: People and State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); Angel Smith, Historical Dictionary of Spain (Plymouth: Scarecrow Press, 2009); Stanley Black, Spain since 1939 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Christopher J. Ross, Spain since 1812 (Oxford: Routledge, 2014) and Julián Casanova and Carlos Gil-Andrés, Twentieth-Century Spain: A History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

  The first useful synthesis in English on the general history of the Franco regime was published by Paul Preston, which retains its analytical vigour: Spain in Crisis: The Evolution and Decline of the Franco Regime (London: Harvester Press, 1976). Three years later, Raymond Carr and Juan Pablo Fusi published a commendable synthesis of the Francoist and subsequent period for the English-speaking public: Spain: Dictatorship to Democracy (London: Allen & Unwin, 1979). Nearly a decade later, the North American Hispanist Stanley G. Payne completed one of the first detailed studies of the regime: The Franco Regime (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987). Another decade later appeared the joint work of Jean Grugel and Tim Rees: Franco’s Spain (London: Arnold, 1997). And just another ten years later was the translation into English of a famous work by Javier Tusell: Spain: From Dictatorship to Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007). One of the more recent contributions in English on the history of Franco is the work of Nigel Townson: Spain Transformed: The Franco Dictatorship, 1959–1975 (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2010). A final work should be mentioned in this regard, the book edited by Helen Graham as a tribute to Professor Preston’s outstanding research on the Francoist period: Interrogating Francoism (London: Bloomsbury, 2016).

  Monographs on Particular Aspects of the Franco Regime

  As a military dictatorship in its origin and until the end, Franquismo is well addressed in the famous works of Stanley G. Payne, Politics and the Military in Modern Spain (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967) and Paul Preston, The Politics of Revenge: Fascism and the Military in Twentieth Century Spain (London: Routledge, 1995). Also interesting are the contributions of Wayne H. Bowen and José E. Álvarez, A Military History of Modern Spain (Westport: Praeger, 2007).