Ring of Steel
Page 101
Dualist system 1, 15, 16, 22, 96, 241, 249
Dunajec, river 188
Dunkirk 258, 440, 516
Düsseldorf 67, 77, 222, 354
Dzików 153, 182, 197
East Prussia
atrocities in 162, 170–81, 226, 257, 489–90
evacuation of civilians from 267–8
occupation 239
and Polish Corridor 562
refugees from 179, 180, 181, 199, 200, 203
Russian invasion of 106, 134, 160, 161–2, 170–81, 182, 183, 184, 198–9, 206, 210, 226, 229, 257, 266, 268, 349, 489–90, 564
weakness of German forces in 106, 149
see also Allenstein
Eastern Galicia 182
Ebert, Friedrich 78, 554, 555
Egypt 32
Einem, General Karl von 122, 123, 131, 529–30
Eisner, Kurt 554
Elbe, river 553
Eltzbacher, Paul 234
The German People’s Food Supply and the English Starvation Plan 232–3
Emden (ship) 216, 230
encirclement
of Balkans 28
of Central Powers 2, 29, 35, 229, 256, 275, 348, 464, 530, 531
of Paris 106
England see Britain
English Channel 240, 426, 427, 435, 520
Entente Cordiale 31, 32
entertainment, serious and light 213–14
epidemics 156–7, 194, 200, 337, 339, 388, 511, 528, 536
Ering 69
Erler, Fritz 488
Ernst, Prince (son of Archduke Franz Ferdinand) 55
Erzberger, Matthias 369, 422, 447, 458, 459–60, 555, 556
Eschenberg, Engine-room Petty Officer Karl 429
Essen 222–3
Estonia 493
Eucken, Rudolf 228
Eugene of Savoy, Prince 62
Everth, General 309
Evlogii, Archbishop 192
Eydtkuhnen 172
Falkenhayn, Erich von 10, 28–9, 37, 44, 46, 48, 52, 79–80, 157, 207, 261–2, 265–6, 279–80
and Bethmann 261–2, 278
and Brusilov Offensive 301, 309
character and personality 29, 48, 52
as Chief of Staff 157
and Congress Poland 407
and Flanders offensive 207
and Hindenburg and Ludendorff 457
indecision 28
and Poland 412
and political parties 79–80
predicts defeat 265–6, 279
and prospect of war 37, 44, 46, 52
and Somme 320
tactics 261–2, 279–80, 312
and Trentino campaign 300–301
and Verdun 293–300, 301, 311, 327–8
as War Minister 10
‘Family Aid’ 75
Fascism 140
fatalism 287
Fayolle, General Marie-Émile 314, 320
fertilizer shortage 341–2, 343
Fez 33
Le Figaro 61
Finland 493
Fischer, Fritz 30, 31, 266
Fiume (later Rijeka) 96, 546
Flanders 207, 261, 465, 517, 522, 552
Flotilla 425, 426, 430, 434, 441
separatists 405
Flers-Courcelette 323
Foch, Marshal Ferdinand 523, 534, 554, 555–6
food
administration 348–59
cooperatives 338, 357
ersatz products 334
hoarding 65, 363
imports into Austria from Hungary 343–4, 345 (Table 10)
inferior quality 333–4
prices 332–3
rationing: in Austria 244; in Austria-Hungary 340, 349, 351–4; in Bohemia 474; in Britain 435; in Germany 340, 351–4, 446, 477; and heavy workers 353–4, 362–3; in Poland 409; in Vienna 352; in Warsaw 409
riots see hunger riots
shortages: in Austria 203–4, 206, 209, 243–4, 468; in Austria-Hungary 492, 539; in Bohemia 476; and Burgfrieden 360; causes 341–8; in Galicia 75, 356; in Germany 209, 211, 216–17, 233–5, 272, 371–3, 451, 468, 488, 537; (mis)management of 348–59, 420; in Vienna 209, 332, 341, 353, 361–2, 499, 507, 539
food parcels 397
fragmentation, social 5
France 2, 8, 9, 12, 14, 26, 40, 49, 112, 229, 241, 246, 257, 260
alliance with Russia 8, 9, 12, 14, 26, 61, 246
and Alsace-Lorraine 275, 464, 518, 537, 562
army 104, 106–8, 111, 113, 114, 134, 235; atrocities 124–5
army formations: Second Army 278, 300; Third Army 125; Fourth Army 125; Fifth Army 135; Sixth Army 136, 314, 316, 320
control of population by occupation forces 404
counter-offensive on Marne (1918) 522–3, 527
defeat by Germany 112, 257
demands 464
demoralization 417
deportations from 273
Entente Cordiale with Britain 31, 32–3
expansionism 33
Falkenhayn and 279–80
food shortages 404
forced labour in 404
French civilians in Germany 386, 391
General Staff 125
and German nationalists 266
and German spring offensive (1918) 257, 516, 518, 522–3
Germany declares war on 49
governmental hierarchy 44
High Command 293
industry and agriculture 158–9
and Italy 514
and Karl’s appeal for peace 540
Marne, Battle of the 134, 135–6, 157, 235, 261, 262, 278, 293, 522, 532
materiel 108
and merchant shipping 436
metallurgical industry 404–5
mines 404–5
and Morocco 31
occupation by Germany 208, 393, 403–4
population 29
preparations for war 45, 48–50, 158
Prussian victory over 29
recognizes Czechoslovak National Committee 537
Revolutionary Wars 293
and Russia 61
sabotage operation 391
Schlieffen plan and 106–8
Somme, Battle of the 280, 310–26, 328–9, 370, 376, 377, 379–80, 417, 422, 516, 517, 518
strength as opponent 515
and threat of invasion 258
war aims 467
and war graves 565
War Ministry 124
Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) 29, 74, 128, 130
Franco-Russian Alliance 37, 38
francs tireurs 128–34, 135, 165, 171, 172, 173, 177, 387
Frank, Josip 96
Frank, Ludwig 68, 81, 85
Frankfurt am Main 72, 219, 363
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke
assassination 8–9, 11, 12, 15, 21, 37, 38, 53–61, 68, 69–70, 75, 103, 136, 141
Belvedere Circle 452
Kaiser Wilhelm and 9, 28
obituaries 53
personality 54, 57
recommends war (1912) 26
Franz Joseph, Emperor 8, 9, 10, 15, 17, 21, 22–3, 27, 37, 190
character and personality 22–3
Conrad and 21, 105, 253–4
and Count Taaffe 269
Czechs and 251–2
death 451, 453
and death of Franz Ferdinand 8, 9
and Galicia 197
insults to 152
and Italy 246
Jews and 95
loyalty of people to 22–3, 92, 93, 95, 100, 117, 243, 245, 247
and mass arrests 101
and military 44–5, 114, 116, 117, 137, 138, 254–5
orders mobilization 41
Russians and 27, 190
‘To my People’ (1914) 69–70
Freiburg 65, 88, 357
Freikorps (Free Corps) 85
French, Sir John 134
Fricourt 313, 319
Friedjung, Heinrich 263
Friedrich, Archduke 137, 254, 453
Friedrich der Grosse (bat
tleship) 483
Fuss, Dr Richard 417
Galicia
after Brest-Litovsk 498–506
agriculture 342
anti-Semitic riots 502, 546
army deserters in 505
as multi-ethnic society 148, 181, 505
and assassination of Franz Ferdinand 57
atrocities in 102, 257, 308, 473
Berchtold and 265
Bezirkshauptleute (District Administrators) 186
black market in 337
campaign against 140, 141, 147, 148–58, 159, 181–206, 207, 209, 210, 244, 245, 247, 281, 282, 342, 359
civilian mortality 340
Conrad and 137, 138–40
and Regency Council 542
eastern 497, 498, 509
farming and oil industry 199, 339
food cooperatives 338
food shortages in 75, 356
as food surplus region 539
and January Insurrection 244–5
Jews in 19, 154, 158, 183–5, 188, 193–7, 199, 200–201, 204–6, 245, 370, 564
leadership of 253
liberation 300
Liquidation Law 195
loyalists in 96
military units in 9, 26, 95, 97, 117
nail figures in 224, 225
occupation 239
paramilitary formations 97–9
as part of proposed Trialist state 241, 269
and Piłsudski 216
Polish-dominated 19
retreat from 155–7, 196
Russia and 35, 106, 160, 161, 162, 181–206, 244–5, 310, 492, 493
Russophiles in 19–20
Sejm 19, 20
strikes in 499
Tisza’s plan for 269
Ukrainian People’s Council and 498
see also Poles, and Galicia
Galician Jewish Civil Worker Battalions 245
Galician-Russian Benevolent Society 189
Gallwitz, General Max von 323, 326
gardening, urban 337–8
Geldern 77
Generalplan Ost 162, 273
genocide 273–4
George V, King 46
German (language) 19, 454
German Fatherland Party 484–5
‘German Work’ concept 398, 400–401, 404
German Worker Central (Deutsche Arbeiterzentrale – DAZ) 410
Germanization 271
Germans 17, 115
in Austria 16 (Table 1), 200, 540, 562
in Austro-Hungarian army 115 (Table 4), 142, 286 (Table 5)
boycotts 19
and Croatians 561
and Czechs 561
in eastern territories 267
in Galicia 183, 185
hated by Slavs 539
as prisoners of war 509, 529–30, 529 (Fig. 7)
Russian 272
and security troops 540
Germany
Admiralty Staff 417–18, 422, 426, 443, 447; Department B-1 417–18, 420
adolescents 366
agriculture 341–2, 360–61, 388–91
as instigators of First World War 42–3
anti-Semitism in 369–70
armaments workers 363
army 33–5, 43, 79–80, 104–12, 113, 114; atrocities 122–4, 127–33; demobilization 564; discipline; desertion from 482, 525, 527–8, 532; Economic Committees 404–5; failing strength 514, 523–27; fatalities 283 (Fig. 2) (see also casualties, German); Field Army 43, 121, 281–2, 292, 297, 376, 483, 492, 524, 526, 528, 532; malnutrition in 338; matériel 108, 524; morale 518–19, 521–2, 524–7; mutiny in 525, 527, 555; NCOs 281–2; officer corps and other ranks 109–12, 116, 130, 281, 284, 530–33; psychiatric casualties 297 (Fig. 3); psychological crisis in 530–34; reserve infantry regiments 298, 318–20; shirking in 528; sickness, real and feigned 528; soldiers going AWOL 528; surrenders, mass 529–32, 536; training and tactics 109, 518; uniform and kit 126; United Supreme Command 327; War Officers (Kriegsoffiziere) 281, 284–5; wartime recruits 282–93
army formations: First Army 134, 135, 136, 297 (Fig. 3), 323, 325; Second Army 134, 135, 156, 166, 297 (Fig. 3), 312, 317, 321, 323, 325, 517, 520, 521, 523, 525; Third Army 134, 529–30; Fourth Army 521; Fifth Army 296, 299, 300, 519; Sixth Army 123, 134, 136, 521, 531; Seventh Army 123, 134, 305, 522; Eighth Army 169, 171; Seventeenth Army 517, 520, 521; Eighteenth Army 517–18, 520, 521; VII Reserve Corps 295; IX Reserve Corps 522; XVII Army Corps 390; XX Army Corps 163; 1 Guards Division 530; 12 Division 463; 16 Division 50; 41 Division 527; Grenadier Regiment 12 322; Infantry Regiment 74 525; Infantry Regiment 145 531; Infantry Regiment 419 525; Reserve Jäger Bataillon Nr. 7 129
Army Corps Districts 79
Army Law 34
Auxiliary Service Law 382–4, 415, 479, 480
Bundesrat 34, 382, 422
Central Purchasing Corporation (Zentral-Einkaufs-Gesellschaft) 347, 348 (Table 11)
crime rates 364–6, 364 (Fig. 5)
Crown Council 422, 465
defeat 523–35
economic demands 258–60
economic policies 360–61, 380–81
Family Help 219
farmers 353, 360–62, 388–91
fatalities see casualties, German
female employment in 335
Field Postal Service 289
food imports 347
food rationing 340, 351–4, 446
food shortages 209, 211, 216, 233–5, 284–5, 377, 341, 393, 488
foreign labour 384–92
Foreign Office 227, 462
‘Free Unions’ 66
General Staff 35, 43, 104, 120, 121, 128, 294, 376
hatred of ‘England’ 226–41, 256, 443, 487, 489
High Command (Third OHL) (Oberste Heeresleitung): aggressiveness 491; and anti-Semitism 369–70; and Belgian industry 407; Hertling and 484; High Seas Fleet 239, 424, 425–6, 427, 483, 551–3; and Hindenburg Programme 378–84, 386–7, 414, 415; at Liège 122; Ludendorff and 375, 377, 379, 414, 460–61, 534; and Mitteleuropa project 537; and Patriotic Instruction programme 485–6; Photographic and Film Office 487; and political agitation 482–3; in power struggle 550; and rearmament drive 416; rise of 460–61, 467; and spring offensive (1918) 517–18; and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 493, 494, 496–8; at Verdun 299; War Press Office 227, 361, 486–7, 488; and western offensive 514, 515
Home District Commands 488
Home Military Commands 360, 370, 374, 481, 487
Imperial Navy Office 238, 240, 457
industry 380–81
infant mortality in 340 (Table 7)
inflation in 332–3
intellectuals 228–9, 260, 266
labour shortage 341–2
Landaufenthalt für Stadtkinder 358
Landräte (District Administrators) 185
Law of Siege 479
livestock 342
Marine Corps 434
metals industry 479
military service legislation 381–4
mining 363
Ministry of Agriculture 361
national councils 493
National Women’s Service 217
Naval Command 551–3
Naval Ministry 227
navy (Kriegsmarine) 32, 258, 416; battleships 483–4; fleet interned 556; High Seas Fleet 239, 424, 425–6, 427, 483, 551–3; morale in 551–2; political subversion and mutiny in 483–4, 553; Third Squadron 553; see also U-boat campaign
Navy Office 32, 229, 444
new government formed by Max of Baden 547–8
new minorities 566
newspapers 226–7, 230
occupied territories 392
People’s Kitchens 355–6
population 29
Postal Ministry 227
postwar reparations demanded from 563
pressure for reform 455–60
prisoners of war 388–92, 526
propaganda 485–90, 491, 518
Public Works Office 486
refused access to League of Nations 562
>
Reich Cereals Board 369
Reichsbank 219, 488–9
Reichstag: and anti-Semitism 369; Bethmann Hollweg and 413, 468; Budget Committee for Food Supply Issues 369; and constitutional reform 456–7; and customs union plan 264; and Hindenburg Programme 381–3, 384; increased influence 457–8; Inter-Party Committee 458–9; military spending 34; Peace Resolution 447, 459–60, 485, 491, 547; and peace terms 548; right-wing members 31; and Russia 42–3, 71, 160–206, 226, 229–30, 492–5, 497 (see also Russia); SPD in 240, 261, 408, 456; Steering Committee 382–3, 447, 458, 515; and strikes 484; and U-boat campaign 422; votes on war credits 81–2, 89, 93, 457, 458, 460; War Aims Majority 260; and welfare bodies 213
relations with United States 388, 443
as republic 557, 562
revolution in 547–56
and Russia 42–43, 71, 160–206, 226, 229–30, 492–5, 496, 497
and Serbia 270; see also Serbia
Soldiers’ Council 555
spring offensive (1918) 515–23; Operation George (Georgette) 521–2; Operation Michael 517–22, 525
Städtetag 357
‘State of Imminent War’ 46–9, 52, 69, 71, 120
‘State of Siege’ 69, 71, 79, 227
strikes in 479–81
supremacism in 271
Supreme Censorship Office 227, 482
taxation 34
U-boat campaigns see U-boats, campaigns
and ultimatum to Serbia 40–41
unemployment 208–9
United Press Department of the Reich Government 228
volunteers for military service 84–7, 86 (Table 2), 92, 93
war aims 257–65, 464–5, 478, 492
‘War Bread’ 435
War Committee for Warm Underwear 213
War Corporations 369
War Loans 220, 361, 445, 487–90
War Ministry 34, 208, 370, 378–80, 386, 486; Food Section 378; Supreme War Office 378–9, 382, 480, 486; War Food Office (Kriegsernährungsamt) 234, 349, 350, 368, 486
War Raw Materials Corporations (Kriegsrohstoff-Gesellschaften) 208
War Welfare (Kriegsfürsorge) 213
Wars of Liberation 219
white-collar and manual workers 333
wish for peace in 469
women in 87–9, 361
youth crime 365–6
see also Prussia
Gibraltar 437
Giesl, Baron Wladimir 11, 13, 40
Girkalnis 402
Glasenapp, Ernst Reinhard von 410
Głogów 184
Gniła Lipa, river 156
‘gold cars’ rumour 76–8, 89, 128
Goodwin Sands 440
Gorizia 91, 246, 327
Gorlice-Tarnów 196, 268
Goschen, Sir Edward 47
Gradisca 91
Graz 93
Great Britain see Britain
Great Yarmouth 238
Greece 25
Grey, Sir Edward 38, 40, 47, 49–51, 275
Gródek 196
Grodno 392, 399
Groener, General Wilhelm 378, 379, 382, 383, 480, 481, 554, 555