Ring of Steel
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guerrilla warfare 128–32, 144, 233
Gumbinnen County 178
Haase, Hugo 78–9, 81, 82, 261, 458, 460, 478, 480
Habsburg dynasty 5, 19, 21, 22–3, 242, 244
Czech affection for 475
legitimacy of 5, 19, 22–3, 90, 92, 103, 242–3, 470, 490, 514–15
loss of popularity 469–71
and Serb nationalism 21
Habsburg Empire
censorship 474, 499, 510
Common Army 112–20, 136–57, 506–12; AOK see High Command; atrocities 142–7, 151–4, 198, 498; and Battle of Caporetto 476; casualties 280–82, 283 (Fig. 2), 309, 327, 330, 538, 564–5; and civilian forced labour 414; Conrad and 11–12, 105, 112–4, 119–20, 137–40, 508–9; cooperation with German army 105; desertion from 508–9, 513 in ‘double war’ 145; echelons 112–3, 137–40, 149; effectiveness of wartime recruits 282–93; Enemy Propaganda Defence Agency (Feindespropaganda-Abwehrstelle) 506–7; ethnic composition 114, 115 (Table 4), 285–7, 286 (Table 5); fatalities see casualties; fear of Bolshevism 509–10; funding and manpower 22, 33–4, 117; and Galicia 148–57, 198, 243–4; German commanders in 327; High Command (AOK) 101–2, 145, 150, 242, 248, 249–50, 253–5, 256, 300, 307, 350, 393, 395, 397; ineffectiveness of 250–51; Jews in 116; languages used in 17, 115–16; loss of strength 538; materiel 117–18, 506, 508; morale and training 33, 506–7, 510–11; offensive on Italian front (1918) 538; officer corps 116–17, 140, 144, 145, 281, 284–6, 309, 538; and Polish Legions 225; powers curtailed 472–3; and PPS-FR 97–8; punishments in 508–9; and quota 15; rations 508; restructuring 506; and returning prisoners of war 509–12, 526; uniforms 119, 120–21, 143, 146, 508; war plans 112–14; see also prisoners of war
Common Army formations: First Army 149, 150, 152, 153; Second Army 139, 141, 145, 147, 149, 156; Third Army 149, 150; Fourth Army 149, 150, 303–6, 308, 309; Fifth Army 141, 142, 147; Sixth Army 141; Seventh Army 300, 305, 307, 308, 309; Army Group Kövess 149, 151–2, 153; Budapest IV Corps 139; I Corps 224; VII Corps 102–3; IX Corps 145; X Corps 304, 307; 2 ITD (Infantry Division) 303–4, 307–8; 9 ITD (Infantry Division) 143; 12 ITD (Infantry Division) 153; 13 LITD (Landwehr Infantry Division) 308; 17 ITD (Infantry Division) 156; 9th Mountain Brigade 507; Infantry Regiment 8 308; Landwehr Infantry Regiment 9 150–51; Infantry Regiment 17 507, 511; Infantry Regiment 28, surrender (April 1915) 249, 250–51; Landwehr Infantry Regiment 30 249; Infantry Regiment 36 249; 60th Landsturm Regiment 249, 252
Common Food Committee (Gemeinsamer Ernährungsausschuß) 350, 495
Common Ministerial Council 10–11, 15, 20, 60, 61, 559
Compromise (1867) 15, 17, 344, 451, 542
Crown Council 540
declaration of war 41–2, 44, 47, 49–51
Dualist system 15, 16, 23, 96, 241, 344, 359, 453–4, 470, 537
female employment in 335
food imports from Hungary 343–4, 345 (Table 10)
food rationing 340, 349, 351–4
food shortages in 342
Foreign Ministry 27, 51, 53, 56, 242
fragmentation 368–9
and Galicia 148–57, 185–8, 197–206; see also Galicia
General Staff 11, 20, 104, 112, 141, 453, 506; Intelligence Bureau 308
and German war aims 461
Germans in 16
Hinterland 101, 178, 202, 253, 255, 472
Honvéd 114, 119, 142, 147, 153–4, 254, 304, 305, 414
Imperial Widow and Orphan Aid Fund 213, 221
Inter-Ministerial Commission 350
Interior Ministry 58, 201, 203, 204, 205, 371; Food Office 350
Jews in 245–6
malnutrition in 339
military service legislation 381
and Mitteleuropa project 263, 264, 537
mobilization 90–103, 138, 139
as multi-ethnic society 8, 14, 15, 27, 90, 93, 99, 102, 199, 203, 206, 286 (Table 5), 287, 512, 545
occupied territories 392, 393
peace plans 466–7
prisoners of war 388–9, 509–12, 515, 526
prosecution of ‘political crimes’ 99–100
public-health crisis 339
repression 99–103
railways 113–14, 138
and rearmament drive 415
refugees in 200, 201–6
revolution 537–41
and Russia 241, 244–5
and Slavs 454
strikes in 495
ultimatum to Serbia 13–14, 21, 38–40, 44, 60, 61–3, 65, 67, 69–70
unemployment 208–9
War Loans 220, 474
War Ministry 62, 93, 208, 213, 242, 337, 345–6, 472; War Welfare Office (Kriegsfürsorgeamt) 213
War Press Office (Kriegspressequartier) 242
see also Austria; Franz Josef, Emperor; Karl, Emperor
Hadik, Count Johann 346, 368
Haeckel, Ernst 228
Haeften, Major Hans von 48
Hagen 223
Hague Convention (1907) 131, 146, 177
Haig, General Douglas 311–12, 314, 316, 321, 323, 324
Haller, General Józef 498
Hamburg 72, 212, 213, 554
food shortages in 216, 330–31, 367, 397
hunger riots 331, 372–3
peace strike in 494
Hamburger Echo 67
Hampton Roads, Virginia 437
‘hamstering’ 336–7, 361–2, 367
Hanover 366, 554
‘Hansi’ (artist) 61
Hanssen, Hans Peter 75–6, 80, 83
Hardecourt 322
Hartlepool 238
hatred and enmity between nations 226–56, 545–6
in Austria-Hungary 241–56
in Germany 226–41, 256, 443, 487, 489
Hausner, Major Artur 73, 74, 103, 156, 207
Hazebrouck 516, 521
Heidelberg 72
Heilbronn 211
Helfferich, Karl 381, 382, 383, 421
Henry of Prussia, Prince 46
Hermine of Schönaich-Carolath, Princess 557–8
Hertling, Georg von 484
Herzegovina 26, 141
Hindenburg, General Paul von
appeal to striking workers 480–81
and battle of Tannenberg 169, 170, 327, 375
and Bethmann-Hollweg 457, 459, 461
as Chief of General Staff 327–8, 374
featured in propaganda 488
and food shortages 361
and forced labour 386–7
‘Iron Hindenburg’ statue 222, 375
and Max of Baden 547, 550
and occupied territories 393, 404, 408, 414, 457, 460–61, 462
as president of German republic 559
and prospect of defeat 534–5
public image 179–80, 206, 216, 222, 375–6, 423, 457
rearmament drive 363, 387, 414, 415, 416, 477
and Russia 207, 226, 462
threats to resign 457
and U-boat campaigns 422–4
war aims 460–62, 493
Hindenburg Line 534, 549
Hindenburg Programme 377, 378–84, 415, 478, 508
Hintze, Admiral Paul von 534–5, 536
Hirschberg, Paul 165, 166, 167, 169, 170
Hitler, Adolf 257, 495, 559, 560
Hochheimer, Dr 533–4
Höfer, Major General von 395
Hoffmann, Lieutenant Colonel (later General) Max 171, 493, 496
Höfner, Ruth 69, 446, 535–6, 565
Holland 107, 419, 422, 435, 436
Holocaust 201, 564
Holstein 222
Holtzendorff, Admiral Henning von 240, 436, 442
memorandum (December 1916) 417–21, 423, 426
Hoofden 552
Hoover, Herbert 406
Horodenka 194
Horsa (steamer) 432
House, Colonel Edward 275
Hoyos, Count Alek 7, 9, 10, 17, 28, 37, 51
Hranilović-Czvetassin, Colonel Oskar von 144, 146
&nb
sp; Hungarian (language) 20, 154
Hungarians (Magyars) 16, 16 (Table 1), 17, 198, 241, 269, 270, 561
in Austro-Hungarian army 115 (Table 4), 117, 153–4, 286 (Table 5)
casualties 565
enmity with Austrians 368
loyalty to Empire 286
outside interwar Hungary 562
as prisoners of war 509
Hungary
after Trianon 562
agriculture 343
becomes Republic 542–3
and Bosnia-Herzegovina 269–70
Communist regime in (1919) 510
and Croatia 20, 97
crop yields 343–4, 344 (Table 9)
and deserters 509
and ‘Dualist’ system 15
economic policies 360
emergency legislation 90
Emperor Karl and 453, 454–5
food exports to Austria 343–4, 345 (Table 10), 495
food rationing 340, 351, 352, 359
food supply 344–6, 350–51
Galician refugees in 201
Hadifelügyeleti Bizottság 242
House of Representatives 15, 17–18, 20, 345
intellectuals in 244
and Karl’s manifesto 541
and Magyarization 23
mass arrests in 99–3
military units in 92
and Mitteleuropa project 263
National Committee 542–3
parliament 17–18, 56, 61–2, 103, 490, 538
People’s Food Office 350
Romanians in 59
secessionist wars 144
security troops 539
Serbs in 101, 102
smuggling from 198
soldiers’ council 543
support for war in 91
Treuga Dei 93
hunger riots 331, 364, 372–3, 455, 468, 503
‘I Gave Gold for Iron’ appeal 218–19
Ianushkevich, General Nikolai 43, 45, 178, 189, 191, 192, 194–6
Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) (Germany) 478–9, 480, 483, 551, 554, 555
India 259
infant mortality 339, 340, 340 (Table 7)
inflation 332–3
influenza 307, 339, 528, 536, 558
see also epidemics
intellectuals 244, 388, 443, 490
International Socialist Congress (1907) 66
Ireland 489
‘Iron Hindenburg’ statue (Berlin) 222
see also nail figures
irredentist movements 21–2, 92, 270, 512
Isonzo, battles of 327
Istria 91, 353, 467
Italians 17, 18, 59
in Austro-Hungarian Army 115 (Table 4), 286 (Table 5)
as prisoners of war 509
Italy
as ally of Germany and Austria-Hungary 12, 30, 239
army 33; First Army 301
August (1916) offensive 327
and battles of Isonzo 327
at Caporetto 467, 512
Conrad and 12
enters war 91, 347
Habsburg conflict with 246–7, 248
imports from 346
invasion of Libya 25
negotiations with 467
neutrality 49, 269
northern, secessionist wars 144
occupied areas 393
offensive (1918) 543
and Trentino campaign 301–9, 311, 466
unification struggle 246
United States and 464
Jabłonków 68, 74
Jagow, Gottlieb von 14, 37, 40, 259, 422
Japan 24, 230
Jarak 142
Jarosław 505
Jaryczów Nowy 183, 194
Jászi, Oscar 145
Jeglič, Prince-Bishop Antonius Bonaventura 247
Jesierna 184
Jews
accused of being work-shy 370, 371
accused of desertion 308
accused of draft-dodging 369
accused of profiteering 369, 370, 371, 503
accused of spying 193
in Austria-Hungary 245–6
in Austro-Hungarian army 116
in Bohemia 371
community councils in Vienna 505
in Congress Poland 409, 503
in Cracow 95–6, 187, 502–5
in eastern territories 267, 268, 272
of Galicia 19, 154, 158, 183–5, 188, 193–7, 199, 200–201, 204–6, 245, 370, 564
as Habsburg subjects 95–6, 245–6, 248
Ludendorff and 559
in Lwów 546
as officers in Austro-Hungarian army 116
as officers in German army 369–70
Orthodox 204, 265, 370
in Poland 95–6, 153, 265, 409
as refugees 370–71, 372
and Ruthenes 192
in Silesia 68
under Nazi regime 564
in Vienna 370, 371, 504, 505–6
as volunteers 86–7
in ZABs 402
see also anti-Semitism
Jirásek, Alois 473
Joffre, General Joseph 125, 134, 135, 277–8, 311, 314, 320
John Paul II, Pope 558
Joseph Ferdinand, Archduke 306
Judenburg 511–12
Jungbunzlau 249
Jutland, Battle of 424, 483
Kaempf, Dr Johannes 82
Kalisz 128
Karadjordjević dynasty 8, 466
Karl, Emperor 451–5
and Alsace-Lorraine 537
amnesty for political prisoners 472–3
and annexations 466–7
and army punishments 508
beatified by Pope John Paul II 558
caricatures of 501
crowned King of Hungary 453–4, 471
Czechs and 475
Czernin and 468, 495
death in exile 558
ineffectiveness 490, 538–9
and Italian offensive 538
manifesto on accession 452
and Mitteleuropa project 537
peace proposals 466–7, 512, 540
Peoples’ Manifesto 541, 544
plan to restructure Austria 454
planned reforms 452–5, 490
and Poles 500–501
recalls the Reichsrat 469–72, 490
rumours about 505
and Russian peace request 492
and Russian revolution 454, 455
speech to Reichsrat 471
and suffrage 454
takes over Supreme Command 452–3, 538
and Ukraine 498
Károlyi, Mihály 542, 543
Kautsky, Karl 478
Kazan 42
Kazimierz 502, 503, 504
Kessler, Major von 393
Kestřanek, General Paul 153
Kiel 494, 553–4
Kielce region 98, 392
Kiev 42, 191, 193, 496, 497
Kishinev 245
Kleparz 224
Kłodnica 153
Klofáč, Václav 250, 473, 474–5
Kluck, General Alexander von 135
Kluyev, Major General 167
Knobelsdorff, General Otto von 294
Köbis, Albin 483
Kohnstern family 211–12, 213, 216–17, 220, 330–31, 335, 338, 371–2, 397, 446–7, 565
Kokotsev, Count Vladimir 43
Kolletzischken 172–3
Kölnische Zeitung 71, 230
Kołomyja 193
Komarów 150, 151
Komitadjis 142, 144, 146, 151
Königgrätz 249, 373
Königsberg 179
Kosch, Major General Robert 131, 133
Kramář, Karel 250, 252, 470, 473
Krauß, Major General Alfred 285
Kreuznach 461, 465
Kriegsnotwehrrecht 145
Kries, Wolfgang von 408
Krobatin, Alexander von 10, 12, 102, 453
Krupp 337
Kuhl, General Hermann von 522, 523
&n
bsp; Kühlmann, Richard von 493, 494, 536
Kuhr, Piete 221
Kuk, General Karl 187–8
Kun, Béla 510
Kvapil, Jaroslav 473
‘Manifesto of Czech Authors’ 473
Kyffhäuserbund 66
La Boiselle 313, 318
labour
forced 384–92, 400–404, 409, 410, 414–15, 448, 559–60, 563; civilian 385–8, 414, 559–60, 563
Lachowice 152
Lammasch, Professor Heinrich 544
Landsturm units 119
Landwehr von Pragenau, General Ottokar 350, 495
Latvia 271, 402
Latvians 401
Lausanne, University of 142
Le Beau, Brigadier General Aurel 145
Le Havre 516
League of German Women’s Associations 88
League of Nations 266, 562
lectures, war 214–15
Ledebour, Georg 478
Legien, Carl 79
Leinster (passenger ship) 548
Leipzig 446, 479–80
High Court trials 560
workers’ council 480
Leitmeritz IX Corps 113
Lemko region 189
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 462, 481, 491, 494, 509–10, 515
Leo, Dr Juliusz 98, 224
letters to and from the front 285, 287–8, 289–90, 330–31, 371–2, 565
Levy, Dr Hermann 417–18
Liberals (Germany) 18, 228, 284
Liberals (Hungary) (later Party of Work) 17
Liberals (Poland) 246
Libya, Italian invasion of 25
Lichnowsky, Prince Karl von 35, 47, 49–50
Liebknecht, Karl 261, 276, 478
Liège (Lüttich) 121, 122–3, 124, 128, 129, 132, 258, 259, 271, 462
Lille 403, 404
Linsingen, General Alexander von 303, 554
Lissauer, Ernst, ‘Hymn of Hatred’ 237
Lithuania 266, 268, 270–71, 392, 460, 462, 493
declares independence 403
farms 402
foods taken by German army 400, 401 (Table 15)
forced labour in 402
Germany and 495
Taryba 403
under Bolsheviks 495
see also Ober Ost
Lithuanians 171, 181, 267
Livonia 493
Liwcze 183
Ljubljana 58, 95, 544
Lloyd George, David 33, 436, 467
Lódź 408, 409, 517
Loewenfeld-Russ, Hans 539
London
Russian Embassy 37
Treaty of (1913) 25
Treaty of (1915) 246
London Declaration 231–2
Longwy-Briey mines 259, 260, 262, 264, 271, 460, 461, 464
Louvain 127
love, war as expression of 210–26, 255–6
Lower Austria 92, 220
Lübeck 554
Lublin 153, 392, 498
Ludendorff, General Erich
and annexations 460–61, 464–5
armistices 534, 547, 549, 551
and Auxiliary Service bill 415