Traditional Japanese Literature

by Haruo Shirane

  Whereas the outer sections of The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter are a mixture of various folktales and legends, the inner section, the courtship by the five aristocratic suitors, appears to be a newer addition. Here the author uses satire to reveal the greed, duplicity, pretense, excessive attachment, and materialism of the different suitors, to expose their excessive belief in the power of calculation. The first three of the five suitor stories form a distinct group, whose characters are summarized quickly, and their deception fails. All the suitors are of the highest rank: elite aristocrats—prince, minister of the right (udaijin), major counselor (dainagon), middle counselor (chūnagon)—but none of them acts like a refined, elegant aristocrat. The author was probably a middle-rank scholar-aristocrat who stood at a critical distance from those in power at the time.

  In the courtship section, the princess is heartless, disgusted with her suitors, but in the last section, she becomes a human figure: emotional, pensive, and melancholy, emotionally attached to her earthly parents. The narrative thus establishes a contrast between the beautiful, clean moon, where immortals live and there are no melancholy thoughts, and the dirty, polluted world, where people suffer and die. The moon also suggests the Western Paradise (jōdo) found in Pure Land Buddhism. This association is reinforced by the descent of the “moon” people, which resembles the raigō (heavenly descent) in Pure Land paintings, in which the spirits of the dead are met by a group of heavenly beings who descend on clouds.

  Even though the earth is a place of exile and punishment for the princess, she becomes attached to it and finds value in human emotions and the human heart. Her celestial robe represents the divide between the two worlds, and significantly, the princess resists putting it on. The emperor also refuses to drink the elixir left him by the princess, complaining, “What use is it, this elixir of immortality, if one cannot have love?” In short, the human world, a world of pathos, is juxtaposed with and comes into conflict with the world of the moon, which is associated with a Buddhistic world of detachment and no suffering.

  The Bamboo Cutter

  Many years ago there lived a man they called the Old Bamboo Cutter. Every day he would make his way into the fields and mountains to gather bamboo, which he fashioned into all manner of wares. His name was Sanuki no Miyakko. One day he noticed among the bamboos a stalk that glowed at the base. He thought this was very strange, and going over to have a look, saw that a light was shining inside the hollow stem. He examined it, and there he found a most lovely little girl about three inches tall. The old man said, “I have discovered you because you were here, among these bamboos I watch over every morning and evening. It must be you are meant to be my child.”

  He took the little girl in his hands and brought her back home. There he gave the child into the keeping of his old wife, for her to rear. The girl was incomparably beautiful, but still so small they put her in a little basket, the better to care for her.

  It often happened afterward that when the Old Bamboo Cutter gathered bamboo he would find a stalk crammed with gold from joint to joint, and in this way he gradually became very rich.

  The child shot up under their loving care. Before three months had passed she stood tall as a grown woman, and her parents decided to celebrate her coming of age. Her hair was combed up and they dressed her in trailing skirts. The greatest pains were lavished on her upbringing—they never even allowed her to leave her curtained chamber. This child had a purity of features quite without equal anywhere in the world, and the house was filled with a light that left no corner dark. If ever the old man felt in poor spirits or was in pain, just to look at the child would make the pain stop. All anger too would melt away.

  For a long time afterward the old man went on gathering bamboo, and he became a person of great importance. Now that the girl had attained her full height, a diviner from Mimurodo, Inbe no Akita by name, was summoned to bestow a woman’s name on her. Akita called her Nayotake no Kaguya-hime, the Shining Princess of the Supple Bamboo. The feast given on the occasion of her name-giving was graced by diversions of every kind and lasted three days. Men and women alike were invited and grandly entertained.

  The Suitors

  Every man in the realm, whether high or low of rank, could think of nothing but of how much he wanted to win Kaguya-hime, or at least to see her. Just to hear the rumors about her made men wild with love. But it was not easy for those who perched on the fence nearby or lurked around her house, or even for those inside, to catch a glimpse of the girl. Unable to sleep peacefully at night, they would go out into the darkness and poke holes in the fence, attempting in this foolish way to get a peep at her. It was from this time that courting a woman came to be known as “night-crawling.”

  But all their prowling around the place, where no one showed the least interest in them, was in vain. Even when they made so bold as to address the members of the household, no answer was forthcoming. Many a young noble, refusing to leave the vicinity, spent his nights and days without budging from his post. Suitors of shallower affections decided eventually that this fruitless courtship was a waste of time and ceased their visits.

  Five among them, men renowned as connoisseurs of beauty, persisted in their suit. Their attentions never flagged, and they came courting night and day. These were Prince Ishizukuri, Prince Kuramochi, the minister of the right Abe no Miushi, the major counselor Ōtomo no Miyuki, and the middle counselor Isonokami no Marotari. Whenever these men heard of any woman who was even moderately good-looking, and the country certainly had many such, they burned to see her; and when they heard about Kaguya-hime they wanted so badly to meet her that they gave up all nourishment and spent their time in brooding. They would go to her house and wander aimlessly about, even though nothing was likely to come of it. They wrote her letters that she did not even deign to answer; they penned odes bewailing their plight. Though they knew it was in vain, they pursued their courtship, undaunted by hindrances, whether the falling snows and the ice of mid-winter or the blazing sun and the thunderbolts of the summer.

  One day they called the Bamboo Cutter to them, and each in turn got down on his knees and rubbed his hands, imploring the old man, “Please give me your daughter!”

  But the old man replied, “The child was not of my begetting, and she is not obliged to obey my wishes.” And so the days and the months went by.

  Confronted by this situation, the gentlemen returned to their houses, where, lost in despondent thoughts, they prayed and offered petitions to the gods, either to fulfill their love or else to let them forget Kaguya-hime. But, however they tried, they could not put her from their minds. Despite what the old man had said, they could not believe that he would allow the girl to remain unwedded, and this thought gave them hope.

  The old man, observing their ardor, said to Kaguya-hime, “My precious child, I realize you are a divinity in human form, but I have spared no efforts to raise you into such a great, fine lady. Will you not listen to what an old man has to say?”

  Kaguya-hime replied, “What request could you make of me to which I would not consent? You say I am a divinity in human form, but I know nothing of that. I think of you and you alone as my father.”

  “Oh, how happy you make me!” exclaimed the old man. “I am now over seventy, and I do not know if my end may not come today or tomorrow. In this world it is customary for men and women to marry and for their families then to flourish. Why do you refuse to be wedded?”

  Kaguya-hime said, “How could I possibly do such a thing?”

  The old man replied, “You are a transformed being, it is true, but you have a woman’s body. As long as I am alive, you may, if you choose, remain unmarried, but one day you will be left alone. These gentlemen have been coming here faithfully for months and even years. Listen carefully to what they have to say, and choose one of them as your husband.”

  “All I can think is that I should certainly regret it if, in spite of my unattractive looks, I married a man without being sure of the depth of his
feelings, and he later proved fickle. No matter how distinguished a man he may be, I wouldn’t be willing to marry him unless I were sure he was sincere,” said Kaguya-hime.

  “That’s exactly what I myself think,” answered the old man. “Now, what must a man’s feelings be before you are willing to marry him? All these gentlemen have certainly shown unusual devotion.”

  Kaguya-hime said, “Shall I tell you the depth of sentiments I require? I am not asking for anything extraordinary. All five men seem to be equally affectionate. How can I tell which of them is the most deserving? If one of the five will show me some special thing I wish to see, I will know his affections are the noblest, and I shall become his wife. Please tell this to the gentlemen if they come again.”

  “An excellent solution,” the old man said approvingly.

  Toward sunset the suitors gathered as usual. One played a flute, another sang a song, the third sang from score, and the others whistled and beat time with their fans. The old man appeared while this concert was still in progress. He said, “Your visits during all these months and years have done my humble house too great an honor. I am quite overwhelmed. I have told Kaguya-hime that my life is now so uncertain I do not know whether today or tomorrow may not be my last day, and I have suggested to her that she consider carefully and choose one of you gentlemen as her husband. She insists, however, on being sure of the depth of your feelings, and that is only proper. She says she will marry whichever of you proves his superiority by showing her some special thing she wishes to see. This is a fine plan, for none of you will then resent her choice.” The five men all agreed that it was indeed an excellent suggestion, and the old man went back into the house to report what had happened.

  Kaguya-hime declared, “I should like Prince Ishizukuri to obtain for me from India the stone begging-bowl of the Buddha. Prince Kuramochi is to go to the mountain in the Eastern Sea called Horai and fetch me a branch of the tree that grows there, with roots of silver and trunk of gold, whose fruits are pearls. The next gentleman is to bring me a robe made of the fur of Chinese fire-rats. I ask Otomo, the major counselor, please to fetch me the jewel that shines five colors, found in a dragon’s neck. And Isonokami, the middle counselor, should present me with a swallow’s easy-delivery charm.”

  The old man said, “These are indeed difficult tasks. The gifts you ask for are not to be found anywhere in Japan. How shall I break the news of such difficult assignments?”

  “What is so difficult about them?” asked Kaguya-hime.

  “I’ll tell them, at any rate,” said the old man and went outside. When he had related what was expected of them, the princes and nobles exclaimed, “Why doesn’t she simply say, ‘Stay away from my house!’?” They all left in disgust.

  The Stone Begging-Bowl of the Buddha

  Nevertheless, Prince Ishizukuri felt as though his life would not be worth living unless he married the girl, and he reflected, “Is there anything I would not do for her, even if it meant traveling to India to find what she wants?” He realized, however, being a prudent man, how unlikely he was to find the one and only begging-bowl, even if he journeyed all eight thousand leagues to India. He left word with Kaguya-hime that he was departing that day for India in search of the begging-bowl and remained away for three years. At a mountain temple in Tochi district of the province of Yamato he obtained a bowl that had stood before the image of Binzuru and was pitch-black with soot. He put the bowl in a brocade bag, fastened it to a spray of artificial flowers, and carried it to Kaguyahime’s house. When he presented the bowl, she looked it over suspiciously. Inside she found a note and opened it: “I have worn out my spirits on the roads over sea and mountains; in quest of the stone bowl my tears of blood have flowed.”

  Kaguya-hime examined the bowl to see if it gave off a light, but there was not so much as a firefly’s glimmer. She returned the bowl with the verse, “I hoped that at least the sparkle of the fallen dew would linger within—why did you fetch this bowl from the Mountain of Darkness?”

  The Prince threw away the bowl at the gate and replied with this verse, “When it encountered the Mountain of Brightness it lost its light perhaps; I discard the bowl, but shamelessly cling to my hopes.” He sent this into the house, but Kaguya-hime no longer deigned to answer. When he discovered she would not even listen to his pleas, he departed, at a loss for words. Because he persisted in his suit even after throwing away the bowl, people have ever since spoken of surprise at a shameless action as being bowled over.

  Prince Kuramochi and Ōtomo no Miyuki, the major counselor, are equally unsuccessful in obtaining the treasures assigned to them.

  The Easy-Delivery Charm of the Swallows

  The middle counselor Isonokami no Marotari gave orders to the men in his employ to report if any swallows were building nests. “Yes, sir,” they said. “But why do you need this information?” He answered, “I intend to get the easy-delivery charm that a swallow carries.”

  The men said variously, “I’ve killed many swallows in my time, but I’ve never seen anything of that description in a swallow’s belly.” “How do you suppose a swallow manages to pull out the charm just when it’s about to give birth?” “It keeps the charm hidden, and if any man gets a glimpse of it, it disappears.”

  Still another man said, “Swallows are building nests in all the holes along the eaves of the Palace Kitchen. If you send some dependable men there and set up perches from which they can observe the swallows, there are so many swallows that one of them is sure to be giving birth. That will give your men the chance to grab the charm.”

  The middle counselor was delighted. “How perfectly extraordinary!” he said, “I had never noticed! Thank you for a most promising suggestion.” He ordered twenty dependable men to the spot, and stationed them on lookout perches built for their task. From his mansion he sent a steady stream of messengers asking if the men had successfully obtained the easy-delivery charm.

  The swallows, terrified by all the people climbing up to the roof, did not return to their nests. When the middle counselor learned of this, he was at a loss what to do now. Just at this point an old man named Kuratsumaro who worked in the Palace Kitchen was heard to remark, “I have a plan for His Excellency if he wishes to get a swallow’s easy-delivery charm.” He was at once ushered into the presence of the middle counselor and seated directly before him.

  Kuratsumaro said, “You are using clumsy methods to get the charm, and you’ll never succeed in that way. The twenty men on their lookout perches are making such a racket that the swallows are much too frightened to come close. You should tear down the perches and dismiss all the men. One man only, a dependable man, should be kept in readiness inside an open-work basket that has a rope attached to it. As soon as a swallow starts to lay an egg, the man in the basket should be hoisted up with the rope. Then he can quickly grab the charm. That is your best plan.”

  “An excellent plan indeed,” said the middle counselor. The perches were dismantled and the men all returned to the palace. The counselor asked Kuratsumaro, “How will we know when the swallow is about to give birth, so the man can be hoisted up in time?”

  Kuratsumaro answered, “When a swallow is about to give birth it raises its tail and circles around seven times. As it is completing its seventh turn you should hoist the basket immediately and the man can snatch the charm.”

  The counselor was overjoyed to hear Kuratsumaro’s words. “How wonderful to have my prayers granted!” he exclaimed. “And to think you’re not even in my service!” He removed his cloak and offered it to the old man. “Come tonight to the Palace Kitchen,” he said, dismissing him.

  When it grew dark the middle counselor went to the Kitchen. He observed that swallows were indeed building nests and circling the place with lifted tails, exactly as Kuratsumaro had described. A man was put in a basket and hoisted up, but when he put his hand into the swallow’s nest he called down, “There’s nothing here!”

  “That’s because you aren’t sear
ching in the proper way!” the counselor angrily retorted. “Is there nobody competent here? I’ll have to go up there myself.” He climbed into the basket and was hoisted up. He peered into a nest and saw a swallow with its tail lifted circling about furiously. He at once stretched out his arm and felt in the nest. His fingers touched something flat. “I’ve got it! Lower me now; I’ve done it myself!” he cried. His men gathered round, but in their eagerness to lower him quickly they pulled too hard, and the rope snapped. The middle counselor plunged down, landing on his back atop a kitchen cauldron.

  His men rushed to him in consternation and lifted him in their arms. He lay motionless, showing the whites of his eyes. The men drew some water and got him to swallow a little. At length he regained consciousness, and they lowered him by the hands and feet from the top of the cauldron. When they at last felt they could ask him how he was, he answered in a faint voice, “My head seems a little clearer, but I can’t move my legs. But I am happy anyway that I managed to get the easy-delivery charm. Light a torch and bring it here. I want to see what the charm looks like.” He raised his head and opened his hand only to discover he was clenching some old droppings the swallows had left. “Alas,” he cried, “it was all to no avail!” Ever since that time people have said a project that goes contrary to expectations “lacks charm.”

  When the middle counselor realized he had failed to obtain the charm, his spirits took a decided turn for the worse. His men laid him inside the lid of a Chinese chest and carried him home. He could not be placed inside his carriage because his back had been broken.

  The middle counselor attempted to keep people from learning he had been injured because of a childish escapade. Under the strain of this worry he became all the weaker. It bothered him more that people might hear of his fiasco and mock him than that he had failed to secure the charm. His anxiety grew worse each day, until he felt in the end it would be preferable to die of illness in a normal manner than lose his reputation.