The American Military

by Brad D. Lookingbill

  Paine's pamphlet discredited the notion of reconciliation with London, especially in the minds of the delegates to Congress. Rumors circulated in Philadelphia that the European powers planned to partition the colonies unless Americans unified. Richard Henry Lee, a delegate from Virginia, introduced a resolution for formal separation from Great Britain that June. Congress passed it after weeks of debate, adopting a statement of purpose known as the “Declaration of Independence.” Drafted by Thomas Jefferson, another Virginia delegate, it announced the self-evident truth that “all men are created equal.” While listing the despotic acts of King George III, it asserted the right of the people “to provide new guards for their future security.” Consequently, Washington ordered it read to every brigade in the Continental Army.

  The Continental Army prepared to defend New York from a British invasion that summer. Lord George Germain, the Secretary of State for the American colonies, directed General Howe and his brother, Admiral Richard Howe, to capture the harbor and to push up the Hudson River. British warships bombarded New York City in July, while 32,000 redcoats massed at Staten Island. On August 22, they went ashore at Gravesend Bay on Long Island.

  With no more than 10,000 troops on Long Island, Washington attempted to hold the Brooklyn Heights. To the south stretched the Heights of Guan, which contained four key passes – Gowanus, Flatbush, Bedford, and Jamaica. Unfortunately, only five Americans guarded the last pass on the eastern end of the line. Howe's divisions maneuvered unchallenged through Jamaica, where the envelopment by the British cleared the high ground. In the Battle of Long Island, the Americans suffered 312 fatalities as well as 1,100 wounded or captured.

  Howe delayed advancing into Brooklyn Village on August 29, when rain and fog gave Washington sufficient cover to escape. Overnight, Colonel John Glover's Marbleheaders of Massachusetts ferried the Continentals across the East River to Manhattan Island. Washington planned to conduct a “war of posts,” that is, holding fortifications while avoiding pitched battles with a more powerful enemy. Conversely, Howe intended to awe a weaker foe with a show of force on water and on land. In other words, neither side desired a bloody affair on Manhattan.

  In mid-September, Howe avoided the American dispositions on Manhattan with a landing on their flank at Kip's Bay. When the Connecticut militia in the area panicked, an enraged Washington began flogging the officers with his riding cane. An aide grabbed the bridle of his horse to lead him from the fray. The outnumbered Americans reformed their lines between the rocky cliffs of Fort Washington and the Harlem River. The next day, the Battle of Harlem Heights checked the British advance with a rare demonstration of American resolve. Sparked by arson, the “Great New York City Fire” consumed buildings and supplies between Broadway Street and the Hudson River. A few weeks later, Howe outflanked Washington again by putting 4,000 men ashore through Hell Gate at Throg's Neck. British bugle calls signaled a fox chase, as militiamen began scurrying past the Bronx River for safety. At almost every turn, the Continentals abandoned their defensive lines on Manhattan.

  The Continentals stiffened at White Plains, but Howe crossed the Bronx River to confront them on October 28. Despite losing the Battle of White Plains, Americans under General Alexander McDougall offered a furious defense of Chatterton's Hill. Washington ordered his men to retrench at North Castle. Howe repositioned his men on the east side of the Hudson around Fort Washington, which surrendered on November 16. On the west bank of the river, Fort Lee fell to the British four days later.

  With the Americans on the run, Washington escaped from New York. He placed 5,500 troops under General Charles Lee at North Castle and dispatched 3,200 soldiers under General William Heath to Peekskill. Left with no more than 3,000 men, he staggered into New Brunswick, New Jersey. He hoped to salvage what remained of the Continental Army to fight another day, but he admitted to his brother that “the game is pretty near up.” Though dispirited from the series of defeats, he began to contemplate a Fabian strategy for harassment and attrition.

  Figure 2.2 The Northern Campaigns

  “These are the times that try men's souls,” wrote Paine, who joined the Continentals and became an aide to General Nathanael Greene. That winter, his pamphlet series titled The American Crisis denounced the “summer soldier” and the “sunshine patriot” for not remaining steadfast. He summoned his counterparts to stand firm against tyranny, warning them that the British planned to turn American homes “into barracks and bawdy-houses for Hessians.”

  Once Washington retreated across the Delaware River, Howe accomplished nearly all of the British military objectives for 1776. Aware that Continental enlistments expired at the end of the year, he issued a proclamation that offered pardons to rebels swearing allegiance to the Crown. He sent a detachment with a naval escort to occupy Newport, Rhode Island. His troops dispersed to Amboy, New Brunswick, Kingston, Maidenhead, Princeton, Trenton, and Bordentown in New Jersey. While Hessian regiments guarded the advance outposts, the British commander retired to New York for the winter.

  Eyeing 1,500 Hessians at Trenton, Washington gambled on Christmas night. Glover ferried 2,400 Continentals back across the icy Delaware to strike the outpost on the eastern side of the river. They completed the crossing after sunrise, when sentries spotted them marching through the heavy snowfall. Pressing onward, Washington rode in front of his advancing troops. Knox's cannons blasted the jagers pouring like a mob onto the streets, while a bullet cut down their commander, Colonel Johann Rall. After an hour of fighting, the Battle of Trenton left the Hessians with 22 dead and 98 wounded. By comparison, only six Americans suffered combat wounds – one of whom was Lieutenant James Monroe of Virginia. Although hundreds of Hessians slipped away, over 1,000 became prisoners of war.

  Upon receiving reports of the Hessian rout, Howe sent General Lord Charles Cornwallis to regain the initiative in New Jersey. On January 2, Cornwallis rallied British forces near Assunpink Creek. Knox, whom Congress promoted to general, directed cannonades to keep them off balance. Leaving campfires burning as a decoy, Washington avoided a trap by advancing to Princeton the next morning. He mixed sound judgment in the field with a sudden flash of daring. Thanks to quick marching in adverse conditions, Americans claimed another victory in the Battle of Princeton. With British losses numbering in the hundreds, American figures amounted to 25 killed and 40 wounded. Afterward, Washington's command moved to the Watchung Mountains and quartered in Morristown for the rest of the winter.

  Year of the Hangman

  For the Continental Army, surviving the onslaught of the British military represented a remarkable achievement. Although London bestowed a knighthood upon Howe, the most powerful empire in the world underestimated the opposition in North America. On the heels of the winter victories at Trenton and Princeton, Washington rallied troops to his command in the spring. They grew to 9,000 effectives along with countless irregulars. Taken aback by American tenacity in early 1777, British forces withdrew from New Jersey altogether.

  British authorities referred to 1777 as the “year of the hangman,” because the three sevens symbolized the gallows from which rebels would swing. Accordingly, flamboyant General Johnny Burgoyne laid out a plan of attack in upper New York. He proposed separating New England from the other colonies by driving southward along Lake Champlain and the Hudson River. With Lord Germain's approval, he organized an expeditionary force of 8,300 that included regulars, militia, loyalists, Germans, and Indians. Likewise, Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger prepared to maneuver down the Mohawk River and junction with him at Albany. Though not stipulated in the plan, he hoped that an advance northward from New York City by Howe would cut off the enemy retreat.

  Instead of moving directly to Albany for a junction with Burgoyne, Howe sought a rematch with Washington elsewhere. He preferred transporting his troops by water to strike Philadelphia. If Burgoyne reached Albany, then he would reposition them depending on “the state of things at the time.” Ignorant of North American geography and preoccu­
pied with other affairs, Lord Germain approved Howe's request to head south before going north.

  With Howe operating on his own, Burgoyne drove southward from Quebec. “I have but to give stretch to the Indian forces under my direction – and they amount to thousands – to overtake the hardened enemies of Great Britain and America,” he threatened in a blustering proclamation. That summer, his troops quickly captured Fort Ticonderoga. They pressed onward through difficult terrain, while the Continentals of the Northern Department remained in disarray. On July 7, a British advance party clashed with an American rear guard. The Battle of Hubbardton resulted in 132 American casualties in a two-hour fight. A week later, the redcoats took Skenesboro. With their confidence soaring, the loyalists in New York cheered the accomplishments of “Gentleman Johnny.”

  As Burgoyne approached Fort Edward, Jane McCrea unexpectedly altered the course of the campaign. A party of Indian scouts found her hiding in a cellar on July 27. Because she was engaged to a loyalist in Burgoyne's army, they began quarrelling over the ostensible reward. One of them, a Wyandot named Panther, reportedly shot her and scalped her. Then he stripped her clothes and mutilated her body. Word of the assault outraged many of the locals, as the death of an innocent female produced an unexpected effect. Many indicted British commanders for offering scalp bounties, which soon aroused militiamen. The story spread like wildfire, including embellishments about her “clustering curls of soft blonde hair.” Blaming the incident on “savage passion,” Burgoyne demanded that the killer surrender for a trial. Instead of submitting to British law, scores of Indian scouts abandoned the campaign.

  British forces paused before reaching the Hudson, while Continental units tried to regroup in Albany. Congress replaced Schuyler in the Northern Department with Gates, an ex-officer of the Royal Army. With gray hair and thick spectacles, the 50-year-old acquired the nickname “Granny.” The wily commander composed a public letter to Burgoyne that scolded the British for “the miserable fate of Miss McCrea.”

  Suffering from shortages of supplies, the British dispatched foraging expeditions into the countryside. Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum of the Brunswick dragoons directed a detachment to seize cattle, horses, saddles, bridles, carriages, and hostages. A New Hampshire brigade under General John Stark intercepted them outside Bennington, a town near the Walloomsac River. His lead column carried a flag with 13 stripes and a large “76” in the center. “There are the redcoats, and they are ours,” bellowed the veteran of Rogers' Rangers, “or Molly Stark sleeps a widow tonight.” On August 16, he hit them with a pincer movement in the Battle of Bennington. What began with intricate maneuvering turned into desperate hand-to-hand combat. Stark, who lost 30 killed and 40 wounded, returned home in triumph after mauling Baum's detachment.

  At the same time, Continentals and militiamen at Fort Stanwix faced St. Leger's column in the Mohawk Valley. Commencing on August 6, the Battle of Oriskany cost the Americans approximately 450 casualties. However, weeks of ambushes and sorties left the loyalists and the Indians disheartened by their losses. After Congress promoted him to general, Arnold attempted to save his counterparts with a hoax. He sent a captured shaman to warn St. Leger's Indian allies that a mighty force of patriots was coming. Whether or not they believed his ravings, the scouts vanished in the woods. St. Leger withdrew to Oswego, where his units boarded boats for Quebec. By September, Arnold had secured Fort Stanwix and returned to the Hudson Valley.

  Disengaged from the military action in the Hudson Valley, Howe loaded some 18,000 men on board ships and sailed for Chesapeake Bay. In late August, they went ashore at the Elk River in Maryland. As they marched toward Philadelphia, Washington established a defensive line on the eastern side of Brandywine Creek.

  On September 11, the Battle of Brandywine pitted 11,000 Americans against 12,500 British and Hessian troops. Howe demonstrated at Chadds Ford while outflanking Washington on the left with a wide turning maneuver. Fighting ensued around Meeting House Hill, but the Continentals and the militiamen withdrew by nightfall. The Marquis de Lafayette, a young French aristocrat serving under Washington, helped to conduct an orderly retreat. The Americans lost over 200 killed, 500 wounded, and 400 captured in defeat, although Washington still blocked Howe's path to Philadelphia.

  Around Philadelphia, the two sides marched and countermarched through creeks and rivers. At 1:00 a.m. on September 21, British General Charles Grey surprised a slumbering Continental detachment commanded by General Anthony Wayne near the Paoli Tavern. Carrying out a bayonet assault at night, Grey's men removed the flints from their muskets to maintain noise discipline. Many of Wayne's men never left their blankets. More than 200 Continentals died in the “Paoli Massacre,” while another 100 received wounds.

  Washington repositioned the Continentals along the Schuylkill River, but Howe crossed at Flatland Ford to reach Philadelphia. Congress fled to York, Pennsylvania, before the British marched to the Pennsylvania State House. South of Philadelphia, Fort Mifflin and Fort Mercer on the Delaware remained in American hands until November.

  Five miles northwest of Philadelphia, Washington planned a counterstroke against Howe at Germantown. “Will you resign your parents, wives, children, and friends to be the wretched vassals of a proud, insulting foe?” he asked his anxious troops. He pressed the question further: “And your neck to the halter?” He organized four columns for a dawn attack on October 4. General John Sullivan led the main thrust into the town, although a dense fog frustrated the synchronization of their movements. Dazed and confused, some fired on each other. Nevertheless, they drove the redcoats through the streets before eventually retreating. Several British companies made a valiant stand at the Chew House.

  As the fog lifted, Howe claimed another victory in the Battle of Germantown. The Continentals lost 152 killed, 500 wounded, and 438 captured while inflicting 550 casualties on their adversaries. Afterward, Washington's command huddled in the Pennsylvania countryside to plan the next move.

  Meanwhile, Burgoyne crawled along the Hudson River. Without the “eyes” of Indian scouts, he reached the west bank town of Saratoga by mid-September. South of town, Gates positioned 7,000 Continentals and militiamen on Bemis Heights. Thanks to Colonel Thaddeus Kosciuszko, a Polish engineer, the Americans erected three-sided breastworks of earth and logs that blocked the British path to Albany. On the left wing, Arnold urged Gates to order a reconnaissance in force before Burgoyne potentially seized the high ground to the west.

  On September 19, the Battle of Saratoga began near a clearing in the woods called Freeman's Farm. That afternoon, a corps of 400 riflemen under Colonel Daniel Morgan fired several volleys that cut down the British lines. His sharpshooters worked their long-barreled, rifled weapons, which reputedly hit a target the size of a man's head at 250 yards. Communicating with turkey calls, they surged back and forth across the open space. With a passion for combat, Arnold led several charges from the southern fringe. The British retained the field but absorbed more casualties by dusk.

  Burgoyne awaited relief from a diversionary attack by General Henry Clinton, Howe's subordinate in New York. Irrespective of British maneuvering, Gates not only remained a mile and a half away on Bemis Heights but also increased his forces to 11,000 men. Isolated at the river's edge, the redcoats faced daily sniping and harassment from patrols.

  On October 7, the opposing forces renewed the Battle of Saratoga. Ignoring the counsel of his senior officers, Burgoyne probed the left flank of the defensive line. Gates relieved Arnold from command after a dispute but ordered other officers “to begin the game.” After mid-day, the Continentals hit the British at a wheat field near Freeman's Farm. Riding his mount between enemy redoubts, Arnold defied his commander by entering the fray. He shouted “victory or death” in the reckless assaults, although a bullet broke his thighbone. Commanding from the safety of Bemis Heights, Gates directed troops to hold the forward positions “at all hazards.” As heavy rains began to fall, Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga.

>   Finally, Burgoyne asked Gates for terms. On October 17, the former ordered his 5,800 men to surrender their arms. American losses totaled 90 dead and 240 wounded, while British casualties exceeded 1,000. Rather than seeing rebels swing from the gallows before winter, “Gentleman Johnny” raised his hat, bowed, and spoke humbly in the Saratoga Convention: “The fortune of war, General Gates, has made me your prisoner.”

  The Alliance

  As another winter approached, the Continentals grew discontented. American officers groused about the mismanagement of military affairs by Congress, especially in regard to the commissary and quartermaster systems. Senior staff approached Washington with a proposal for pensions and an order of knighthood, but the commander-in-chief doubted the feasibility.

  With relations already testy, congressional support for Washington wavered over the winter. In the aftermath of the Saratoga victory, Gates violated his chain of command by corresponding directly with delegates. They created a Board of War to monitor the armed forces and appointed him president. Moreover, they elevated an Irish-born Frenchman named Thomas Conway to the post of inspector general. “Heaven has been determined to save your country, or a weak general and bad counselors would have ruined it,” remarked Conway in a letter to Gates.

  Once the “Conway Cabal” came to his attention, Washington suspected a scheme to supplant him as commander-in-chief. He wrote to Congress, complaining that Conway's appointment “will give a fatal blow to the existence of the Army.” He sent a curt note to Gates, who denied knowledge of any conspiracy but stepped down from the Board of War. Conway resigned his commission and received a jaw wound in a duel with an American officer. After writing a letter of apology, the soldier of fortune returned to Europe.