The Politics of Aristotle

by Aristotle

  Secondly look from the point of view of relative terms and see, for destructive purposes, if the correlative of the term rendered fails to be a property of the correlative of the subject; for then neither will the correlative of the first be a property of the correlative of the second. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as double is relative [20] to half, and in excess to exceeded, while in excess is not a property of double, exceeded will not be a property of half. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if the correlative is a property of the correlative; for then also the correlative of the first will be a property of the correlative of the second: e.g. inasmuch as double is relative to half, and the proportion 1 : 2 is relative to the [25] proportion 2 : 1, while it is a property of double to be in the proportion of 1 : 2: it will be a property of half to be in the proportion of 2 : 1.

  Thirdly, for destructive purposes, see if an attribute described in terms of a possession fails to be a property of the given possession; for then neither will the attribute described in terms of the privation be a property of the privation. Also if an attribute described in terms of the privation is not a property of the given [30] privation, neither will the attribute described in terms of the possession be a property of the possession. Thus, for example, inasmuch as it is not predicated as a property of deafness to be a lack of perception, neither will it be a property of hearing to be a perception. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if an attribute described in terms of a possession is a property of the given possession; for then also the attribute that is described in terms of the privation will be a property of the privation. Also, if an attribute described in terms of a privation is a property [35] of the privation, then also the attribute that is described in terms of the possession will be a property of the possession. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as to see is a property of [136a1] sight, in so far as we have sight, failure to see will be a property of blindness, in so far as we have not got the sight we should naturally have.

  Next, look from the point of view of affirmations and negations; and first from [5] the point of view of the predicates taken by themselves. This commonplace rule is useful only for a destructive purpose. Thus (e.g.) see if the affirmation or the attribute predicated affirmatively is a property of the subject; for then neither the negation nor the attribute predicated negatively will be a property of the subject. Also if the negation or the attribute predicated negatively is a property of the [10] subject, then neither the affirmation nor the attribute predicated negatively will be a property of the subject: e.g. inasmuch as animate is a property of living creature, inanimate will not be a property of living creature.

  Secondly look from the point of view of the predicates, positive or negative, and their respective subjects; and see, for destructive purposes, if the affirmation fails to [15] be a property of the affirmation; for then neither will the negation be a property of the negation. Also, if the negation fails to be a property of the negation, neither will the affirmation be a property of the affirmation. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as animal is not a property of man, neither will not-animal be a property of not-man. Also if [20] not-animal seems not to be a property of not-man, neither will animal be a property of man. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if the affirmation is a property of the affirmation; for then the negation will be a property of the negation as well. Also if the negation is a property of the negation, the affirmation will be a property of the affirmation as well. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as it is a property of [25] not-animal not to live, it will be a property of animal to live; also if it seems to be a property of animal to live, it will also seem to be a property of not-animal not to live.

  Thirdly, look from the point of view of the subjects taken by themselves, and see, for destructive purposes, if the property rendered is a property of the [30] affirmation; for then the same term will not be a property of the negation as well. Also, if the term rendered is a property of the negation, it will not be a property of the affirmation. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as animate is a property of living creature, animate will not be a property of not-living creature. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if the term rendered fails to be a property of the affirmation; for [35] if it is not a property of the affirmation,27 it will be a property of the negation. This commonplace rule is, however, false; for an affirmation is not a property of a [136b1] negation, or a negation of an affirmation. For an affirmation does not belong at all to a negation, while a negation, though it belongs to an affirmation, does not belong as a property.

  Next, look from the point of view of the co-ordinate members of a division, and see, for destructive purposes, if none of the one set of co-ordinate members is a property of any of the remaining set of co-ordinate members; for then neither will [5] the term stated be a property of that of which it is stated to be a property. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as perceptible living being is not a property of any of the other living beings, intelligible living being will not be a property of God. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if some one or other of the remaining co-ordinate members is a property of each of these co-ordinate members; for then the remaining [10] one too will be a property of that of which it has been stated not to be a property. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as it is a property of prudence to be essentially the natural virtue of the rational faculty, and so too taking each of the other virtues in this way, it will be a property of temperance to be essentially the natural virtue of the faculty of desire.

  [15] 7 · Next, look from the point of view of the inflexions, and see, for destructive purposes, if the inflexion fails to be a property of the inflexion; for then neither will the other inflexion be a property of the other inflexion. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as beautifully is not a property of justly, neither will beautiful be a property of just. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if the inflexion is a property of the inflexion; for then also the other inflexion will be a property of the [20] other inflexion. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as being terrestrial and two-footed is a property of man, it will be a property of ‘to a man’ to be described as ‘to a terrestrial and two-footed thing’. Not only in the case of the actual term mentioned should one look at the inflexions, but also in the case of its opposites, as we said in the case of the former commonplace rules as well.28 Thus, for destructive purposes, see if the [25] inflexion of the opposite fails to be the property of the inflexion of the opposite; for then neither will the inflexion of the other opposite be a property of the inflexion of the other opposite. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as ‘well’ is not a property of ‘justly’, neither will ‘badly’ be a property of ‘unjustly’. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if the inflexion of the opposite is a property of the inflexion of the opposite; for [30] then also the inflexion of the other opposite will be a property of the inflexion of the other opposite. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as best is a property of the good, worst also will be a property of the evil.

  Next, look from the point of view of things that are in a like relation, and see, for destructive purposes, if what is in a like relation fails to be a property of what is in a like relation; for then neither will what is in a relation like that of the first be a property of what is in a relation like that of the second. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as the [35] relation of the builder towards the production of a house is like that of the doctor towards the production of health, and it is not a property of a doctor to produce health, it will not be a property of a builder to produce a house. For constructive [137a1] purposes, on the other hand, see if what is in a like relation is a property of what is in a like relation; for then also what is in a relation like that of the first will be a property of what is in a relation like that of the second. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as the relation of a doctor towards the possession of ability to produce health is like that of a trainer towards the possession of ability to produce vigour, and it is a property of a [5] trainer to possess the ability to produce vigour, it will be a property of a doctor to possess the ability to produce health.

  Next look from the po
int of view of things that are identically related, and see, for destructive purposes, if what is identically related fails to be a property of what is identically related; for then neither will what is identically related be a property [10] of what is identically related. If, on the other hand, what is identically related is a property of what is identically related, then it will not be a property of that of which it has been stated to be a property. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as prudence is identically related to both the noble and the base, since it is knowledge of each of them, and it is not a property of prudence to be knowledge of the noble, it will not be a property of [15] prudence to be knowledge of the base. And if prudence is a property of knowledge of the noble, it will not be a property of knowledge of the base.29 For it is impossible for the same thing to be a property of more than one subject. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, this commonplace rule is of no use; for what is identically related is a single thing brought into comparison with more than one thing. [20]

  Next, for destructive purposes, see if the predicate qualified by the verb ‘to be’ fails to be a property of the subject qualified by the verb ‘to be’; for then neither will the destruction of the one be a property of the other qualified by the verb ‘to be destroyed’, nor will the becoming of the one be a property of the other qualified by the verb ‘to become’. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as it is not a property of man to be an animal, neither will it be a property of becoming a man to become an animal; nor [25] will the destruction of an animal be a property of the destruction of a man. You should argue from becoming to being and to being destroyed, and from being destroyed to being and to becoming, exactly as we have just argued from being to becoming and being destroyed. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if [30] the predicate qualified by the verb ‘to be’ is a property of the subject so qualified; for then also the subject qualified by the verb ‘to become’ will have the predicate qualified by ‘to become’ as its property, and the subject qualified by the verb ‘to be destroyed’ will have as its property the predicate rendered with this qualification. Thus, for example, inasmuch as it is a property of man to be a mortal, it will be a [35] property of becoming a man to become a mortal, and the destruction of a mortal will be a property of the destruction of a man. In the same way one should argue from becoming and being destroyed both to being and to the conclusions that follow [137b1] from them, exactly as was said in the case of destruction.

  Next take a look at the Idea of the subject stated, and see, for destructive purposes, if it fails to belong to the Idea, or fails to belong to it in virtue of that character which causes it to bear the description of which the property was [5] rendered; for then what has been stated to be a property will not be a property. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as being motionless does not belong to man-himself qua man, but qua Idea, it could not be a property of man to be motionless. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if the property in question belongs to the Idea, and belongs to it in that respect in virtue of which there is predicated of it that character of which the predicate in question has been stated not to be a property; for then [10] what has been stated not to be a property will be a property. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as it belongs to living-creature-itself to be compounded of soul and body, and further this belongs to it qua living-creature, it will be a property of living-creature to be compounded of soul and body.

  8 · Next look from the point of view of greater and less degrees, and first for [15] destructive purposes, see if what is so-and-so to a greater degree fails to be a property of what is such-and-such to a greater degree; for then neither will what is less be a property of what is less, nor least of least, nor most of most, nor will what is so-and-so without qualification be a property of what is such-and-such without qualification. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as being more highly coloured is not a property of what is more a body, neither will being less highly coloured be a property of what [20] is less a body, nor being coloured be a property of body at all. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if what is more is a property of what is more; for then also what is less will be a property of what is less, and least of least, and most of most, and without qualification of without qualification. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as a higher degree of perception is a property of a higher degree of life, a lower degree of [25] perception will be a property of a lower degree of life, and the highest of the highest and the lowest of the lowest degree, and perception without qualification of life without qualification.

  Also you should look at the argument from unqualified predication to these qualified types, and see, for destructive purposes, if what is so-and-so without qualification fails to be a property of what is such-and-such without qualification; [30] for then neither will more be a property of more, nor less of less, nor most of most, nor least of least. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as virtuous is not a property of man, neither will more virtuous be a property of what is more human. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if what is without qualification is a property of what is [35] without qualification; for then more will be a property of more, and less of less, and least of least, and most of most. Thus (e.g.) a tendency to move upwards by nature is [138a1] a property of fire, and so also a greater tendency to move upwards by nature will be a property of what is more fiery. In the same way too one should look at the arguments from the others to all these.

  Secondly, for destructive purposes, see if the more fails to be a property of the [5] more; for then neither will the less be a property of the less. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as perceiving is more a property of animal than knowing of man, and perceiving is not a property of animal, knowing will not be a property of man. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if the less is a property of the less; for then too the more will be a property of the more. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as to be naturally [10] civilized is less a property of a man than to live of an animal, and it is a property of man to be naturally civilized, it will be a property of animal to live.

  Thirdly, for destructive purposes, see if the predicate fails to be a property of that of which it is more a property; for then neither will it be a property of that of which it is less a property; while if it is a property of the former, it will not be a [15] property of the latter. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as to be coloured is more a property of a surface than of a body, and it is not a property of a surface, to be coloured will not be a property of body; while if it is a property of a surface, it will not be a property of a body. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, this commonplace rule is not of any use; for it is impossible for the same thing to be a property of more than one [20] thing.

  Fourthly, for destructive purposes, see if what is more a property of a given subject fails to be its property; for then neither will what is less a property of it be its property. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as perceptible is more a property of animal than divisible, and perceptible is not a property of animal, divisible will not be a property of animal. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if what is less a property [25] of it is a property; for then what is more a property of it will be a property as well. Thus, for example, inasmuch as perception is less a property of animal than life, and perception is a property of animal, life will be a property of animal.

  Next, look from the point of view of the attributes that belong in a like degree, [30] and first, for destructive purposes, see if what is as much a property fails to be a property of that of which it is as much a property; for then neither will that which is as much a property as it be a property of that of which it is as much a property. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as desiring is as much a property of the faculty of desire as [35] reasoning is a property of the faculty of reason, and desiring is not a property of the faculty of desire, reasoning will not be a property of the faculty of reason. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if what is as much a property is a property of that of which it is as much a property; for then also what is as much a property as it will be a property of that of which it is as much a property. Thus (
e.g.) [138b1] inasmuch as it is as much a property of the faculty of reason to be the primary seat of prudence as it is of the faculty of desire to be the primary seat of temperance, and it is a property of the faculty of reason to be the primary seat of prudence, it will be a property of the faculty of desire to be the primary seat of temperance. [5]

  Secondly, for destructive purposes, see if what is as much a property of anything fails to be a property of it; for then neither will what is as much a property be a property of it. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as seeing is as much a property of man as hearing, and seeing is not a property of man, hearing will not be a property of man. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, see if what is as much a property of it [10] is its property; for then what is as much a property of it will be its property as well. Thus (e.g.) it is as much a property of the soul for a part of it to be the primary seat of desire as for a part to be the primary seat of reason, and it is a property of the soul for a part of it to be the primary seat of desire, and so it will be a property of the soul [15] for a part of it to be the primary seat of reason.

  Thirdly, for destructive purposes, see if it fails to be a property of that of which it is as much a property; for then neither will it be a property of that of which it is as much a property; while if it is a property of the former, it will not be a property of the other. Thus (e.g.) inasmuch as to burn is as much a property of flame as of live coals, and to burn is not a property of flame, to burn will not be a property of live [20] coals: while if it is a property of flame, it will not be a property of live coals. For constructive purposes, on the other hand, this commonplace rule is of no use.