War of Frontier and Empire

by David J Silbey

26. Quoted in Sexton, Soldiers in the Sun, 32.

  27. Quoted in David Joel Steinberg, “An Ambiguous Legacy: Years at War in the Philippines,” Public Affairs 45, no. 2 (summer 1972): 168.

  28. Quoted in Grania Bolton, “Military Diplomacy and National Liberation: Insurgent-American Relations After the Fall of Manila,” Military Affairs 36, no. 3 (October 1972): 99–104.

  29. Diary entry for August 1, 1898, Theodore Wurm Papers.

  30. Oscar Davis quoted in Coffman, The Hilt of the Sword, 16.

  31. Diary entry for August 16, 1898, Theodore Wurm Papers.

  32. Quoted in Lewis O. Saum, “The Western Volunteer and ‘The New Empire,’ ” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 57, no. 1 (January 1996): 18–27.

  33. Hofstadter, “Manifest Destiny and the Philippines,” 173–200, 187.

  34. Julie A. Tuason, “The Ideology of Empire in National Geographic’s Coverage of the Philippines, 1898–1908,” Geographical Review 89, no. 1 (January 1999): 34–53.

  35. Joel H. Silbey, Storm over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to the Civil War (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2005), 80–90.

  36. Mayan to John S. Barnes, July 21, 1898, in Robert Seager and Doris D. Maguire, Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, Volume II, 1890–1901 (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 566.

  37. Dawes, Journal of the McKinley Years, 166.

  38. Young, Heroic Deeds, 94. Also Thomas A. Bailey, “Dewey and the Germans at Manila Bay,” American Historical Review 45, no. 1 (October 1939): 59–81; Alfred Vagts, “Hopes and Fears of an American-German War, 1870–1915,” Political Science Quarterly 54, no. 4 (December 1939): 514–35.

  39. James K. Eyre, Jr., “Russia and the American Acquisition of the Philippines,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 28, no. 4 (March 1942): 539–62.

  40. Seager and Maguire, Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, 2:582.

  41. William R. Braisted, “The Philippine Naval Base Problem,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 41, no. 1 (June 1954): 21–40.

  42. Daniel Schirmer, The Philippines Reader: A History of Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship, and Resistance (Boston: South End Press, 1987), 21.

  43. Robert Rydell, “The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition: ‘To Work Out the Problem of International Civilization,’ ” American Quarterly 33, no. 5 (winter 1981): 587–607, 603–604.

  44. Lewis L. Gould, The Spanish-American War and President McKinley (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1982), 109.

  45. Whitelaw Reid to C. Inman Barnard, July 23, 1898, in David R. Conosta and Jessica R. Hawthorne, eds., “Rise to World Power: Selected Letters of Whitelaw Reid, 1895–1912,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 76, no. 2 (1986): 141.

  46. Whitelaw Reid to Donald Nicholson, August 8, 1898, in ibid., 43; Reid to McKinley, October 4, 1898, in ibid.

  47. Henry Cabot Lodge to Henry White, August 12, 1898, quoted in Brian Damiani, Advocates of Empire: William McKinley, the Senate, and American Expansion, 1898–1899 (New York: Garland, 1987), 39.

  48. Damiani, Advocates of Empire, 98.

  49. Whitelaw Reid to McKinley, October 4, 1898, in Conosta and Hawthorne, eds., “Rise to World Power,” 45.

  50. For great power attitudes, see Eyre, “Russia and the American Acquisition of the Philippines,” 539–62; for “little dog,” see Whitelaw Reid to John Hay, October 26, 1898, in Conosta and Hawthorne, eds., “Rise to World Power,” 47.

  51. Diary entry for August 18, 1898, Theodore Wurm Papers.

  52. Unnamed soldier, December 24, 1898, quoted in Facts about the Filipinos 1, no. 6 (July 15, 1901): 6.

  53. Quoted in Jerry Cooper, Citizens as Soldiers: A History of the North Dakota National Guard (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 64.

  54. Gift, Attitudes of the State Volunteer Soldiers, no page number.

  55. Public statement, January 5, 1899, in Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection, 52–53.

  56. David Sturtevant, Agrarian Unrest in the Philippines (Ames, Ohio: Center for International Studies, Ohio University, 1969), 8.

  57. Quoted in Cooper, Citizens as Soldiers, 67.

  58. “Daily Report,” in Facts about the Filipinos 1, no. 5 (May 1901): 59.

  59. Ibid., 60.

  60. Quoted in Gift, Attitudes of the State Volunteer Soldiers, no page number.

  3. “At the Cannon’s Mouth”

  1. Lewis O. Saum, “The Western Volunteer and ‘The New Empire,’ ” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 57, no. 1 (January 1996): 18–27, 23.

  2. Karl Irving Faust, Campaigning in the Philippines (San Francisco: Hicks-Judd, 1899), 136.

  3. Diary entry for March 4, 1899, Theodore Wurm Papers, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  4. William Richard Gordon, History of the 10th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry (Pennsylvania), 70–72.

  5. Figures and quote from David F. Trask, The War with Spain in 1898 (New York: Macmillan, 1981), 245.

  6. John Taylor, ed., Compilation of Philippine Insurgent Records: Telegraphic Correspondence of Emilio Aguinaldo, July 15, 1898 to February 28, 1899 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1903), no page number but chronological at September 13, 1898.

  7. David A. Armstrong, Bullets and Bureaucrats: The Machine Gun and the United States Army, 1861–1916 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1982), 115.

  8. Russell Gilmore, “ ‘The New Courage’: Rifles and Soldier Individualism, 1876–1918,” Military Affairs 40, no. 3 (October 1976): 97–102.

  9. Roger Pauly, Firearms: The Life Story of a Technology (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2004), 115–16.

  10. Quoted in Jerry Cooper, Citizens as Soldiers: A History of the North Dakota National Guard (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 81.

  11. Quoted in A. B. Feuer, ed., America at War: The Philippines, 1898–1913 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002), 89.

  12. Alexander Hawkins, “Official History of the Operations of the 10th Pennsylvania Infantry, U.S.V. in the Campaign in the Philippine Islands,” in Karl Irving Faust, Campaigning in the Philippines (New York: Arno, 1970), 15.

  13. Ibid.

  14. Herbert M. Reddy, U.S. Infantry, 6th Regiment, “Ridin’ Herd in the Philippines,” 2, Spanish-American War Survey, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  15. “Annual Report of Major-General E. S. Otis, U.S.V., Commanding Department of the Pacific and Eighth Army Corps, Military Governor in the Philippine Islands,” in The Annual Report of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1899, vol. 1, part 4 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899), 100.

  16. Ibid.

  17. James H. Blount, The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898–1912 (New York: Putnam, 1912), 196.

  18. John R.M. Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection against the United States (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971), vol. 5, 609.

  19. Arthur MacArthur, “Report of Field Operations of the Second Division, Eighth Army Corps, for March–May, 1899,” in The Annual Report of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1899, vol. 1, part 5 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899), 382.

  20. Quoted in ibid., 385.

  21. Ibid., 391–92.

  22. Ibid., 393.

  23. Ibid., 395.

  24. Don Russell, Campaigning with King: Charles King, Chronicler of the Old Army, edited by Paul Hedren (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), 125.

  25. Quoted in Feuer, ed., America at War, 140.

  26. Quoted in Garel Grunder, The Philippines and the United States (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1951), 40.

  27. August 26, 1898, quoted in William B. Gatewood, Jr., Black Americans and the White Man’s Burden (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 187.

  28. Mark Joseph Peceny, The Promotion of Democracy in U.S. Policy during Military Interventions (Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1992), 76–78.

  29. Fred H. Harrington, “The Anti-Imperial
ist Movement in the United States, 1898–1900,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 22, no. 2 (September 1935): 211–30.

  30. Quoted in Grunder, The Philippines and the United States, 42–43.

  31. Walter L. Williams, “United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism,” Journal of American History 66, no. 4 (March 1980): 810–31.

  32. John W. Burgess, “How May the United States Govern its Extra-Continental Territory?,” Political Science Quarterly 14, no. 1 (March 1899): 1–18; Williams, “United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation,” 810–31. Despite these seemingly settled precedents, the legal discussion over the “Insular Territories” acquired in 1898—Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines—continued. See Lanny Thompson, “The Imperial Republic: A Comparison of the Insular Territories under U.S. Dominion after 1898,” Pacific Historical Review 71, no. 4 (November 2002): 535–74.

  33. Quoted in Gatewood, Black Americans, 183.

  34. Quoted in Peceny, Promotion of Democracy, 109.

  35. Grunder, The Philippines and the United States, 47.

  36. Quoted in Peceny, Promotion of Democracy, 113.

  37. Charles Dawes, A Journal of the McKinley Years (Chicago: Lakeside Press, 1950), 183.

  38. David Axeen, “ ‘Heroes of the Engine Room’: American ‘Civilization’ and the War with Spain,” American Quarterly 36, no. 4 (autumn 1984): 481–502, 496.

  39. Dean C. Worcester, June 1898, quoted in Julie A. Tuason, “The Ideology of Empire in National Geographic’s Coverage of the Philippines, 1898–1908,” Geographical Review 89, no. 1 (January 1999): 34–53.

  40. Gordon, History of the 10th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry, 80.

  41. Quoted in Forrest Pogue, George C. Marshall: Education of a General, 1880–1939 (New York: Viking, 1963), 52.

  42. Tuason, “The Ideology of Empire,” 34–53.

  43. Quoted in David Joel Steinberg, “An Ambiguous Legacy: Years at War in the Philippines,” Public Affairs 45, no. 2 (summer 1972): 168.

  44. Timothy Deady, “Lessons from a Successful Counterinsurgency: The Philippines, 1899–1902,” Parameters 35, no. 1 (spring 2005): 57.

  45. John R.M. Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection against the United States: A Compilation of Documents with Notes and Introduction, vol. 4 (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971), 544.

  46. Ibid., 576.

  47. “General Orders to the Commanders of Zone Operations and Provincial Military Commanders,” February 7, 1899, in Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 3.

  48. Severino de las Alas, “Circular to the Provincial Chiefs of This Archipelago Regarding the Cause of the Death of General Antonio Luna and His Aide, Colonel Francisco Roman,” in Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 657.

  49. For example, Deady, “Lessons from a Successful Counterinsurgency,” 11.

  4. A New Army Arrives

  1. Wilmer Blackett, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, Spanish-American War Survey Box 228, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  2. Quotes from John D. LaWall, Company I, 27th Regiment, U.S. Volunteers, “Sixteen Months in the Philippines,” Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  3. Ibid.

  4. Ibid.

  5. Russell Roth, Muddy Glory: America’s “Indian Wars” in the Philippines (W. Hanover, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1981), 60.

  6. William B. Gatewood, Jr., Black Americans and the White Man’s Burden (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 3.

  7. Unnamed African-American woman from Minnesota, quoted in ibid., 223.

  8. Information and quotes from ibid., 182, 185, 190.

  9. Ibid., 199.

  10. Ibid., 192, 194.

  11. Harry Smith of the Cleveland Gazette, April 22, 1899, quoted in ibid., 202.

  12. Unnamed officer in the War Department, quoted in ibid., 215.

  13. Quoted in ibid., 230.

  14. Anonymous, quoted in Gatewood, Black Americans, 282.

  15. Roth, Muddy Glory, 65.

  16. Gatewood, Black Americans, 280.

  17. Quoted in David Lawrence Fritz, “The Philippine Question: American Civil/Military Policy in the Philippines, 1898–1905” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas, 1977), 208.

  18. “Report of Major-General Otis,” May 14, 1900, in The Annual Report of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1900, vol. 1, part 4 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900), 207.

  19. Lawton to Brig. Gen. Theodore Schwan, October 25, 1899, in ibid., 221.

  20. Lawton to Schwan, November 7, 1899, in ibid., 231; Lawton to Schwan, November 9, 1899, in ibid., 232.

  21. Lawton to Schwan, November 12, 1899, in ibid., 234.

  22. Report for 1900, quoted in James H. Blount, The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898–1912 (New York: Putnam, 1912), 242.

  23. Quoted in ibid., 247.

  24. John R.M. Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection against the United States, vol. 5 (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971), 5.

  25. Ibid., 5:4–5.

  26. Ibid., 5:5.

  27. March to Young, December 7, 1899, in The Annual Report of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1900, vol. 1, part 4 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900), 319.

  28. Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 5:12.

  5. One War Ends, Another Begins

  1. Lawton to Brig. Gen. Theodore Schwan, December 9, 1899, in The Annual Report of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1900, vol. 1, part 4 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899), 302.

  2. McCalla to Young, December 14, 1899, in ibid., 336.

  3. Col. A. H. Bowman, “Official Report of the 25th Regiment, 1899–1902” in John H. Nankivell, ed., History of the Twenty-Fifth Regiment United States Infantry, 1869–1926 (New York: Negro University Press, 1927), 90.

  4. Both quotes from William T. Schenck to the Denver Daily News, January 6, 1900, in Nankivell, ed., History of the Twenty-Fifth Regiment, 101–102.

  5. Quoted in Frank Lewis Prue, 9th U.S.V. Infantry, “A Ninth Infantry Soldier’s Experiences in the Philippine Insurrection,” 23, Spanish-American War Survey, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  6. Allan Millett, The General: Robert Bullard and Officership in the United States Army 1881–1925 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1975), 126–28.

  7. Ibid., 130. See also Bullard’s report on the matter in The Annual Report of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1900, 1:385.

  8. Schwan to Otis, February 8, 1900, in The Annual Report of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1900, 1:390.

  9. Quoted in John Gates, Schoolboys and Krags: The United States Army in the Philippines, 1898–1902 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1973), 129.

  10. Norman G. Owen, “Winding Down the War in Albay, 1900– 1903,” Pacific Historical Review 48 (1979): 557–89, 575–76.

  11. David A. Lockmiller, Enoch H. Crowder: Soldier, Lawyer, and Statesman (Columbia: University of Missouri Studies, 1955), 76–77, has a discussion of the new legal code.

  12. Quoted in ibid., 133.

  13. Joseph P. McCallus, ed., Gentleman Soldier: John Clifford Brown and the Philippine-American War (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004), 196.

  14. LaWall, Company I, 27th Regiment, U.S. Volunteers, “Sixteen Months in the Philippines,” Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  15. Otis telegram to Adjutant-General, May 3, 1900, in Graham Cosmas, ed., Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain, Including the Insurrection in the Philippine Islands and the China Relief Expedition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Military History, 1993), 1164.

  16. Quoted in Russell Roth, Muddy Glory: America’s “Indian Wars” in the Philippines (W. Hanover, Mass.: Christopher Publishing House, 1981), 18.

  17. Otis telegram to Adjutant-General, May 4, 1900, in Cosmas, ed., Correspondence
, 1165.

  18. Quoted in H. Wayne Morgan, William McKinley and His America (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2003), 371.

  19. Quoted in ibid., 374.

  20. Roosevelt to Lodge, July 1, 1899, in Henry Cabot Lodge, ed., Selections from the Correspondence of Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge, 1884–1918 (New York: Scribner, 1925), 404.

  21. Roosevelt to Lodge, December 11, 1899, in ibid., 426.

  22. Roosevelt to Lodge, February 2, 1900, in ibid., 448.

  23. Walter LaFeber, “Election of 1900,” in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Fred L. Israel, and William P. Hansen, eds., History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–2001, vol. 5 (Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2002), 1875–1962.

  24. Ibid., 1886.

  25. Roosevelt to Lodge, June 25, 1900, in Lodge, ed., Selections, 465.

  26. Quoted in William Carl Spielman, William McKinley: Stalwart Republican (New York: Exposition Press, 1954), 172.

  27. R. Ernest Dupuy and William Banner, The Little Wars of the United States (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1968), 84.

  28. Edward Coffman, The Hilt of the Sword: The Career of Peyton C. March (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), 18.

  29. Stanley Karnow, In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines (New York: Random House, 1989), 171.

  30. Rowland T. Berthoff, “Taft and MacArthur, 1900–1901: A Study in Civil-Military Relations,” World Politics 5, no. 2 (January 1953): 196–213.

  31. Kenneth Ray Young, The General’s General: The Life and Times of Arthur MacArthur (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994), 260–61.

  32. LaWall, “Sixteen Months in the Philippines.”

  33. A. B. Feuer, ed., America at War: The Philippines, 1898–1913 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002), 183–84.

  34. Quoted in McCallus, Gentleman Soldier, 230.

  35. LaWall, “Sixteen Months in the Philippines.”

  36. Quoted in Brian McAllister Linn, “Intelligence and Low-Intensity Conflict in the Philippine War, 1899–1902,” in Intelligence and National Security 6, no. 1 (January 1991): 90–114.

  37. Quoted in William B. Gatewood, Jr., Black Americans and the White Man’s Burden (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 269.