War of Frontier and Empire

by David J Silbey

  38. Lowell Thomas, Woodfill of the Regulars: A True Story of Adventure from the Arctic to the Argonne (New York: Doubleday, 1929), 45.

  39. Gatewood, Black Americans, 199.

  40. John R.M. Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection against the United States: A Compilation of Documents with Notes and Introduction (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971), 5:106.

  41. Lt. Col. Julio Herrera to Local Presidentes, May 6, 1900, in ibid., 194.

  42. Quoted in Berthoff, “Taft and MacArthur,” 199.

  43. LaWall, “Sixteen Months in the Philippines.”

  44. MacArthur to Adjutant-General, Washington, D.C., September 19, 1900, in Cosmas, ed., Correspondence, 1211.

  45. Quoted in Young, The General’s General, 282.

  46. Quoted in Andrew Birtle, “The U.S. Army’s Pacification of Marinduque, Philippine Islands, April 1900–April 1901,” Journal of Military History 61, no. 2 (April 1997): 255–82, 266.

  47. Berthoff, “Taft and MacArthur,” 202.

  48. Birtle, “U.S. Army’s Pacification,” 263.

  49. Ibid., 1222.

  50. William Henry Scott, Ilocano Responses to American Aggression, 1900–1901 (Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers, 1986), 162.

  51. Quoted in Frank Friedel, “General Orders 100 and Military Government,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 32, no. 4 (March 1946): 541–56, 549.

  52. John S. Reed, “External Discipline during Counterinsurgency: A Philippine War Case-Study, 1900–01,” Journal of American–East Asian Relations 4, no. 1 (spring 1995): 29–48, 37, 35.

  53. Howard K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956), 65.

  54. Quoted in ibid., 71.

  55. George Knox in the Indianapolis Freeman, quoted in Gatewood, Black Americans, 183.

  56. Feuer, ed., America at War, 185.

  57. Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 373.

  58. MacArthur telegram to Adjutant-General, December 3, 1900, in Cosmas, ed., Correspondence, 1232.

  59. Scott, Ilocano Responses, 161.

  60. Taylor, Philippine Insurrection, 134.

  61. Ibid., 131.

  62. Reed, “External Discipline,” 49.

  63. LaWall, “Sixteen Months in the Philippines.”

  64. Evan Wyatt, 8th U.S. Infantry, Army Service Experiences Questionnaire, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  65. Feuer, ed., America at War, 186.

  66. Kobbé to Headquarters Department of Mindanao and Jolo, January 22, 1901, in Annual Report of the War Department, 1901, vol. 1, part 4 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901), 273.

  67. Quoted in Donald Smythe, Guerilla Warrior: The Early Life of John J. Pershing (New York: Scribner, 1973), 62.

  68. Lt. H. S. Howland, quoted in Frank E. Vandiver, Black Jack: The Life and Times of John J. Pershing, vol. 1 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1977), 257.

  69. Birkhimer to the Adjutant-General, Department of Mindanao and Jolo, January 15, 1901, in Annual Report of the War Department, 1901, 1: 279.

  70. Report of Maj. M. M. McNamee to Adjutant-General, Department of Mindanao and Jolo, December 29, 1900, in ibid., 291.

  71. Birkhimer to the Adjutant-General, Department of Mindanao and Jolo, January 15, 1901, in ibid., 276.

  6. “Satisfactory and Encouraging”

  1. Graham Cosmas, ed., Correspondence Relating to the War with Spain, Including the Insurrection in the Philippine Islands and the China Relief Expedition (Washington, D.C.: Center for Military History, 1993), 1241.

  2. A. B. Feuer, ed., America at War: The Philippines, 1898–1913 (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002), 191.

  3. W. H. Scott, Ilocano Responses to American Aggression, 1900–1901 (Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers, 1986), 161–78.

  4. Much of this account is drawn from Funston’s report to MacArthur. See “Frederick Funston Report on Capture of Aguinaldo,” in H. P. Legg, 1898-W-799, Company F, 17th U.S. Infantry, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  5. Emilio Aguinaldo and Vicente Albano Pacis, A Second Look at America (New York: Robert Speller & Sons, 1957), 16.

  6. Herbert M. Reddy, U.S. Infantry, 6th Regiment, “Ridin’ Herd in the Philippines,” Spanish-American War Survey, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa. Reddy caught a glimpse of Aguinaldo watching the game.

  7. John R.M. Taylor, The Philippine Insurrection Against the United States (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971), 5: 378.

  8. Aguinaldo and Pacis, A Second Look at America, 129.

  9. Ibid.

  10. Reddy, “Ridin’ Herd in the Philippines.”

  11. Ibid.

  12. Ibid.

  13. Ibid.

  14. William B. Gatewood, Jr., Black Americans and the White Man’s Burden (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 277.

  15. Scot Ngozi-Brown, “African American Soldiers and Filipinos: Racial Imperialism, Jim Crow, and Social Relations,” Journal of Negro History 82, 1 (winter 1997): 42–53. Blakeny letter quoted in William Gatewood, Jr., “Smoked Yankees” and the Struggle for Empire: Letters from Negro Soldiers, 1898–1902 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1987), 311.

  16. Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (New York: Modern Library, 2001), 30.

  17. Ibid., 3.

  18. Ibid., 13–15.

  19. James Taylor, ed., The Massacre of Balangiga: Being an Authentic Account by Several of the Few Survivors (Joplin, Mo.: McCarn Printing, 1931), 23.

  20. Ibid., 7, 11.

  21. Ibid., 38.

  22. Ibid., 1.

  23. David L. Fritz, “Before the ‘Howling Wilderness’: The Military Career of Jacob Hurd Smith, 1862–1902,” Military Affairs 43, no. 4 (December 1979): 186–90.

  24. Brian Linn, The Philippine War, 1899–1902 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 312, for example.

  25. William Thomas Keane, 8th Regiment U.S.V., Army Service Experiences Questionnaire, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  26. For the surrender of Lukhban, see Eugene F. Ganley, “Mountain Chase,” Military Affairs 24, no. 4 (winter 1960–61): 203–10.

  27. Glenn Anthony May, “150,000 Missing Filipinos: A Demographic Crisis in Batangas, 1887–1903,” Annales de Démographie Historique 21 (1985): 215–43, 237.

  28. Forrest Pogue, George C. Marshall: Education of a General, 1880– 1939 (New York: Viking, 1963), 75.

  29. Ibid.

  30. Ibid.

  31. Ibid.

  32. Quoted in Morris, Theodore Rex, 101.

  33. Quoted in ibid., 104.

  34. Pvt. Evan E. Wyatt, 1898–236, 8th U.S. Infantry, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.

  Conclusion: A Most Favored Race

  1. Quoted in Brian McAllister Linn, “The Long Twilight of the Frontier Army,” Western Historical Quarterly 27, no. 2 (summer 1996): 141–67, 158.

  2. Raymond Ileto, “The Philippine-American War: Friendship and Forgetting,” in Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream, 1899–1999 (New York: New York University Press, 2002), 3.

  3. David Joel Steinberg, “An Ambiguous Legacy: Years at War in the Philippines,” Public Affairs 45, no. 2 (summer 1972): 168–90, 179.

  4. Emilio Aguinaldo and Vicente Albano Pacis, A Second Look at America (New York: Robert Speller & Sons, 1957), 16.

  5. This argument is, of course, not original with me. See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991), as well as Benedict Anderson, The Spectre of Comparisons: Nationalism, Southeast Asia, and the World (London: Verso, 1998), 193–264.

  6. Quoted in Linn, “Long Twilight,” 151.

  Acknowledgments

  This book would not have been possible without the help of a large number of people. Thomas LeBien was kind enough to take a flier on an unknown scholar. Eric Rauchway got the project rolling and had solid words of advice along the way. The staff of the
Van Pelt Library at the University of Pennsylvania were generous with their time and effort, although they signally failed to pry open a set of broken compact shelves. The archivists at the Military History Institute in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, were, as always, remarkably thoughtful and efficient. At Alvernia College, my colleagues—Victoria Williams, Jerry Vigna, Tim Blessing, Donna Yarri, and Kevin Godfrey—have been constantly helpful. President Lawrence Mazzeno and Provost Charles Perkins, obligingly enough, hired and then tenured me. Joel Silbey was both a useful sounding board and a supportive father. Rosemary Silbey occupied a similar role on the maternal side. Madeline Silbey raced me to the finish line, and won by being born weeks ahead of the final sentence of the manuscript. None of this would be possible without Mari. To say that she was supportive simply mocks the inadequacy of the English language. This book is for her.

  Index

  The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages in your eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest.

  For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.

  African-Americans; imperialism as viewed by; lynchings of; political preferences of; press of; in U.S. Philippine army

  Aguinaldo, Baldomero

  Aguinaldo y Famy, Emilio; American motives as viewed by; Bonifacio assassinated by; capture of; council of war held by; death of; Dewey’s conversation with; English language rejected by; escape of; Hong Kong exile of; Luna assassinated by; military control exercised by; 1900 election and; Palanan hideout of; Pratt’s conversation with; propaganda efforts of; retreat to highlands by; revolutionary manifesto of; supply problems of; surrender proclaimed by; Treaty of Biak-na-Bato signed by; Treaty of Paris and; see also Army of Liberation;

  Aguinaldo y Famy, Emilio (cont.) Philippine Republic; Philippine Revolution

  Alfonso XIII, Emperor of Spain

  Anderson, Brig. Gen. Thomas

  Army, U.S.; as antiquated organization; career stagnation in; desertions from; expansion of; forts of; post– Civil War; professionalization of; supply problems of; see also Cuban War

  Army, U.S., in Philippines; African-American units of; attrition of; boredom of; civilian interactions with; commanding officers of; conditions endured by; delousers of; deserters from; discharges from; diseases contracted by; enlistment terms of; firearms experience of; GO 100 guidelines for; high morale of; military training of; native auxiliary forces as aid to; 1900 election and; number of soldiers in; payday sprees of; racism of; reinforcement of; rifles used by; small-unit leaders in; see also Army of Liberation, U.S. war with; guerrilla war

  Army of Liberation; ammunition of; artillery of; bolos of; client-patron relations in; desertions from; factional loyalties in; fortifications of; hemp trade and; high firing by; lack of cohesion in; local revolts against; Luna’s reform plan for; military capability of; public displays staged by; rebuilding of; rifles used by; sparse live-fire training of; U.S. military opinions of; weapons abandoned by; see also Aguinaldo y Famy, Emilio

  Army of Liberation, U.S. alliance with–xvi; fortified demarcation lines of; Manila besieged by; Manila’s surrender and; mutual antagonism in; U.S. motives in; U.S. policy in; weapons supplied in

  Army of Liberation, U.S. War with; aggressive tactics of; assumed victory in; Caloocan campaign in; Calumpit campaign in; casualties of; cultural differences and; defensive line around Manila in; first Philippine Commission’s interference in; geographical factors in; insurgent surrenders in; intelligence-gathering in; Malolos campaign in; naval blockade’s effect on; naval support of; press coverage of; rainy season’s effect on; reasons for U.S. victory in; return to normality after; small-scale fighting in; southern campaign of; supply problems of; terrain of; Tirad Pass Battle in; transportation problems in; U.S. public popularity of; see also Manila, Battle of; Otis, Gen. Elwell

  Astor, John Jacob

  Back to Bataan

  Balangiga massacre; punitive retaliation for; U.S. casualties in

  Bangued ambushes

  Barrett, Pvt. William Henry

  Bass, John F.

  Batchelor, Capt. Joseph

  Bates, Maj. Gen. John

  Belarmino, Gen. Vito

  Belgian Congo

  Bell, Gen. J. Franklin

  Beveridge, Albert

  Bigelow, John

  Birkhimer, Col. William

  Bismarck, Otto von

  Blackett, Wilmer

  Blakeny, William F.

  Boer War

  Bonifacio, Andres

  Bray, Howard

  Brewer, Gurley

  Brown, John Clifford

  Bryan, William Jennings

  Bumpus, Lt. Edward

  Caffery, Donelson

  Cailles, Gen. Juan

  Caloocan

  Calumpit

  Campbell, Archibald

  Canada

  Cano, Juan Sebastián del

  Capistrano, Gen. Nicolas

  Catholicism

  Catubig ambush

  Chaffee, Brig. Gen. Adna

  Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

  China

  cholera epidemics

  Christner, William

  civilian concentration policy

  Civil War, U.S.

  Cleveland, Grover

  client-patron relationship

  Combs, Pvt. Walter

  Confederacy

  Congress, U.S.; see also Senate, U.S.

  Connell, Capt. Thomas W.

  Constantino, Renatoi

  Cozzens, Pvt. Lewis

  Cuba

  Cuban War; civilian concentration policy in; Maine incident in; U.S. campaign in

  Custer, George

  Czolgosz, Leon

  Dawes, Charles

  Daza, Lt. Col. Eugenio

  Debs, Eugene

  del Pilar, Gen. Gregorio

  Democratic Party; 1900 election campaign of

  Dewey, Commodore George; Aguinaldo’s conversation with; in Battle of Manila Bay; heroic image of; in 1900 election campaign; Otis’s relationship with; replacement of

  Dodge, Col. Richard

  Dodge Commission

  Duncan, George

  elections, U.S.: of 1896; of 1898; of 1900; of 1902; of 1904

  Fagen, David

  Federal Party

  France; see also Treaty of Paris

  Funston, Col. Frederick

  Gandhi, Mahatma

  Gardener, Fletcher

  Garfield, James A.

  General Orders 100 (GO 100)

  Germany, navy of

  Gould, Lewis

  Great Britain; India and; navy of

  Greene, Brig. Gen. Francis

  Grotius, Hugo

  Guam; insurgents deported to

  Guardia de Honor de Maria

  guerrilla war–xvi; as amigo warfare; atrocities in; Bangued ambushes in; casualties in; cholera epidemic and; civilian concentration policy in; civilian support of; dubious U.S. military practices in; ending of; fall campaign season of; food supplies controlled in; insurgent retreat into highlands prior to; insurgents captured in; insurgent surrenders in; insurgent victories in; Marinduque ambush in; Mavitac Battle in; Mindanao campaign in; naval support of; 1900 election and; pacification campaign in; proclamation of surrender in; pro-U.S. civilians vs.; punitive measures against civilians in; on Samar, see Samar; San Tomas ambush in; strain imposed by; strategy of; terrain of; transition to; as two-front war; U.S. intelligence-gathering in; U.S. resupply trains attacked in; weapons captured in; see also MacArthur, Brig. Gen. Arthur, as military governor

  Hale, Brig. Gen. Irving

  Hanna, Mark

  Harden, Edwin

  Hare, Gen. Luther

  Harrison, Benjamin

  Hawaiian Islands; annexation of

  Hay, John

  Hazel, John

  Hazzard, Capt. R. T. and Lt. O.P.M.

  Hearst, William Randolph

  hemp trade />
  Hewson, Ernest

  Hoar, George Frisbie

  Hobart, Garrett

  Ho Chi Minh

  Hofstadter, Richard

  Hong Kong

  Hong Kong Junta

  Hose, Sam

  House of Representatives, U.S.

  Howell, Commodore John

  Igorrotes

  Ileto, Raymond

  imperialism; anti-imperialism vs.; European; as 1900 campaign issue

  Indios Bravos

  Industrial Revolution

  Influence of Sea Power upon History, The (Mahan)

  Irish, Cpl. Arnold

  Islam

  Japan

  Jim Crow laws

  Johnson, Robert

  Jones, John Paul

  Jordan, Capt. John L.

  kanao

  Katipunan

  Keane, William

  Kimball, Lt. Warren

  King, Brig. Gen. Charles

  Kipling, Rudyard

  Knox, Calvin

  Kobbé, Brig. Gen. William A.

  Krag-Jorgensen rifles

  LaWall, John D.

  Lawton, Maj. Gen. William

  Lewis, William

  Leyte

  Lieber, Frances

  Lincoln, Abraham

  Linn, Brian, xiv

  Lodge, Henry Cabot

  Long, John D

  López de Legazpi, Don Miguel

  Luce, Adm. Stephen

  Lukhban, Gen. Vincente

  Luna, Gen. Antonio; Aguinaldo’s assassination of; military reform advocated by

  Mabini, Apollinaro

  Mabry, Sgt. Charles

  Macabebe scouts

  McAlfrey, Pvt. Alexander

  MacArthur, Brig. Gen. Arthur; Angeles campaign of; in Battle of Manila; Caloocan campaign of; Calumpit campaign of; contingency plan of; Malolos campaign of; promotions of

  MacArthur, Brig. Gen. Arthur, as military governor; aggressive military plans of; Aguinaldo’s capture and; amnesty period offered by; celebratory reception given by; departure of 180 – 81; deportations ordered by; Federal Party and; GO 100 enforced by; on Mavitac Battle; native auxiliary forces expanded by; personality of; pessimistic attitude of; Taft’s relationship with; widely-spaced garrisons established by

  MacArthur, Douglas

  McCalla, Commodore Bowman

  McCutcheon, John

  McKinley, William; African-Americans and; assassination of; Cuban War and; “divine ordination” concept of; 1896 election of; Hawaii annexed by; Midwestern tour of; 1900 election campaign of; noninterference foreign policy of; Philippines annexed by; re-election of; Treaty of Paris ratification needed by