Manifest Destinies, Second Edition
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Alianza Federal de Mercedes (National Alliance of Land Grants), 137
Alonso, Ana María, 53
Alta California, 4, 7, 18, 22, 54, 193n17, 194n24
American G.I. Forum, 176–77
American Indians, xi, 6, 78, 171, 186; assimilation of, 231n123; one-drop rule and, 232n155; as racial group, 1, 161–62, 230n110; in racial hierarchy, 56, 90, 145, 148, 173; with slaves, 119, 222n124, 222n132, 224n10, 231n123; U.S. Census and, 161, 172. See also specific tribes
anti-immigrant sentiment, 169, 184–85
Apaches, 53, 55, 56, 90, 112, 222n124
appellate courts, 34, 40, 99, 129, 152, 203n111
Arab American National Museum, 51, 205n1
Archuleta, Diego, 38
Archuleta, Pantaleon, 39
Argentina, xviii, 165, 173
Arizona, 5, 46, 94, 194n19; SB 1070, xii; statehood, 77–82, 105, 153, 194n21, 195n27
Arizona Rangers, 174
Asian Americans, 161, 172, 185, 190. See also Chinese; Japanese
assertion, ethnicity and, 2, 158
assignment, race and, 2, 158
assimilation: of American Indians, 231n123; resistance to, 65–66; of whites, 88
Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fe Railroad, 89
Atkinson, Henry M., 132–33
Atlantic Monthly, 209n86
attorneys. See lawyers
Avila, Juan Antonio, 37
Avila, Manuel, 176–77
Baca, Celso, 135
Baca y Ortiz, Faustin, 132
bailiffs, 92–93
Bainbridge (Captain), 141
Bancroft, Hubert Howe, 23, 114, 197n40, 198n45, 220n87
Banner, Stuart, 227n45
baptisms, 112, 223n149
Barcelo, Trinidad, 39
Barreto, Matt, 190
Barros, Mariano, 135, 228n69
Beardsley, Mary, 70
Beaubien, Charles, 35, 38
Beck, Warren, 225n30
Behnken, Brian, 176–77
Benedict, Kirby, 99, 101
Bent, Charles, 95, 199n59, 202n103; murder of, 15–16, 28–32, 37, 200n78, 201n100, 203n119; U.S.–Mexican War and, 24–25, 26, 200n87
Bent, George, 25, 35
Benton, Thomas Hart, 19
Beveridge, Albert J., 153, 154, 212n143; imperialism and, 212n137, 212n140; racism and, 212n137, 212n141; statehood and, 77–82, 212n146, 213n151, 233n168
Black Lives Matter movement, xiii
Black Reconstruction in America (Du Bois), 215n15
blacks, 193n7, 235n48, 235n50; population, 108; subordination of, 12, 143–45, 151, 230n110; U.S. Census and, 57, 104, 152. See also African Americans
Blackwood, Mary, 103
Blackwood, William, 103–4
Blair, Frank, 36, 37–38, 39, 201n100
Blow, Peter, 140
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo, 184
border, xx, 191n9, 231n132, 236n12; Mexico, 160; New Mexico, 234n21; Texas, 228n88
Border Patrol, U.S., 236n12
Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act. See Sensenbrenner immigration bill
Bowers, Claude G., 212n140, 212n141, 212n146
Bredahl, Mari Ramirez, 183–84
Brooklyn Eagle (newspaper), 80
Brooks, James, 112–13, 115, 116, 220n89, 222n124
Brown v. Board of Education, 177, 179
Brubaker, Rogers, 17, 162–63
Buchanan, James, 43, 204n141
Cabinet Committee on Opportunities for Spanish-Speaking People, 158
Cadena, Carlos, 177
California, 5, 58, 104, 139, 185; Alta California, 4, 7, 18, 22, 54, 193n17, 194n24; citizenship restrictions and, 145–46; gold in, 7, 46, 129, 194n24; politics, 189–90; population, xix, xx, 194n20, 194n24, 195n25; statehood, 43, 46
California Land Act (1851), 129, 134, 136
Carbado, Devon, 206n26
Carson, Kit, 28, 113, 117, 214n169
Carson National Forest, 137
caste regime (régimen de castas), 53
Castro, Fidel, xvii, 166
Castro, Robert, xxii
Cather, Willa, 95, 218n42
Catron, Thomas B., 70, 75, 134, 211n119, 227n63
Census, U.S.: advisory committee for 1980, 158–59, 171–72; blacks, 57, 104, 152; Las Vegas, New Mexico, 88; Mexican population, 55, 193n6, 194n20; national identity and, 158; New Mexico, 73–74, 104, 194n20, 215n9; non-Indian population, 153; politics and, 158–59, 172; Pueblo Indians, 207n42; racial identity and, 158–64, 169, 171–73, 183, 184, 191n5, 234n26, 234n28, 235n45, 235n47, 235n49, 236n7; resource questions and, 172, 235n41; slave population, 18, 113, 206n15; social construction of race and, 158–64; 2020 census categories, 173
Chavez, Dennis, 192n24
Cherokee Tribe, 231n123
Chicago Tribune, 80, 211n122
Chicana/o studies, x, xxviii
Chicano, civil rights movement, 83, 166
Chickasaw Tribe, 231n123
children, 114–15, 222n124; education and, 175–76, 179; immigration and, xii, 186, 190, 191n13
Chile, xviii, 165
Chinese, 1, 145, 147, 149, 231n133
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 145, 231n133
Choctaw Tribe, 231n123
Cincinnati Commercial (newspaper), 75, 211n126
Citizens Committee to Test the Constitutionality of the Separate Car Law, 232n163
citizenship: Dred Scott and, 109; for Indians, 59, 145; LULAC, 176, 178; for mestizos, 59, 96; for Mexican Americans, 5–6, 47, 66–67, 91, 102, 143, 145–46, 166; one-drop rules and, 146–55; Pueblo Indians and, 98, 99; race and, 17, 43–47, 67, 77, 81, 102; racial order and, 185; restrictions, xvi, 145–46; second-class, 5–6, 102, 145, 166; statehood and, 84, 194n22; voting and, xx; whites and, 230n114. See also federal citizenship; state citizenship
Civil Rights Act (1866), 76
Civil Rights Act (1964), xiii
civil rights movements: African Americans, 76, 83, 117, 166; Chicano, 83, 166; Mexican American, 176, 179
Civil War, 12, 20, 107, 193n15; Manifest Destiny as catalyst for, 123–24, 138–46; slavery and, 138–44, 229n101
Clark, William, 229n97
A Class Apart (2009), 237n26
Cleveland, Grover, 133
Clinton, Hillary, xx
Cochiti Pueblo, 98–99, 216n16
Colombia, xvii, 164
colonialism: Mexican Americans and, 4–5, 10, 12, 125–38; myths about, 16, 119; racial order and, 58–61
colonization, double, xxi–xxii, 49–50, 86–87
colonization, of Mexico: executions and, 15–16, 32, 201n99; land transfers and, 227n45; race and, 16–17; with race and citizenship after war, 43–47; resistance to, 22, 26–32, 55–56; by Spain, xxi; trials under U.S. civil law, 32–43; U.S. military and, xxi, 10, 22–26, 73, 197n41, 198n42, 198n43, 198n48, 199n62, 200n82, 217n41, 218n59; war, outbreak of, 17–22; with “white” rights-holders, 10–11, 12, 17–18, 47, 98, 118–21, 214n6
Colorado, 5, 76, 194n19, 194n21, 195n27, 207n43
color-blind racism, xii–xiii
Comanches, 53, 56, 90, 112, 125–26, 224n10
community land grant, 125–28, 224n15, 225n24
A Concise History of New Mexico (Prince), 72, 82
conversion, religious, 59–60, 88
Cordova, Gloria, 204n138
Cornell, Stephen, 3, 166–67
Coronado, Francisco Vásquez de, 55, 206n17
Costa Rica, xviii, 165
county courts, 91–95
Court of Private Land Claims, U.S., 125, 128, 130, 134–36
courts: appellate, 34, 40, 99, 129, 152, 203n111; county, 91–95; federal, xv, 63, 99, 130, 140–41; with language, 92, 94, 211n126; territorial, 70–72, 93, 97, 116; trials, 15–16, 32–43, 92, 176, 180, 201n99, 202n104, 203n120; U.S. Court of Private Land Claims, 125, 128, 130, 134–36. See also criminal courts; Supreme Court, U.S.; supreme courts
Creek Tribe, 231n123
Cresencio Rejón, Manuel, 205n1
49
Crime and Punishment (Friedman), 202n107, 203n108, 203n110, 203n111
criminal courts, 92, 202n104, 202n105, 216n19, 216n29. See also trials
Cruz, Ted, xvi
Cuba, 77, 164, 166–67
Cuban Americans, xvi–xviii, 159, 165, 189
Cuban Refugee Program, 167
culture, 82–83, 209n77
Curiel, Gonzalo, xv
Davis, William Watts Hart, 63–64, 65
De Anda, James, 177
De Arguello v. United States, 230n109
Death Comes for the Archbishop (Cather), 95, 218n42
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program, 190, 191n13. See also Dreamers movement
De León, Arnoldo, 148
Democratic Party, xi, 17, 190
demographics, 8, 194n23; blacks, 151; Hispanics, 158–60; Latinos, xvi–xx, 207n43; Mexican Americans, xviii–xix, 193n6; New Mexico, 7, 73–74, 104, 194n20, 215n9; with population and juries, 70–72. See also Census, U.S.
De Niza, Marcos, 50, 52
deportations, immigration, xii, 160, 188
Dimas, José Angel, 125
discrimination: against blacks, 235n50; in labor, 171; language, 188–89. See also racism
District of Columbia, Latino population in, xx
DNA research, 57, 207n43
dominant view of race, 65–67, 82, 83. See also progressive view of race
Dominican Americans, xvii, 164–65, 173
Dominican Republic, 164
Doniphan (Colonel), 199n57
double colonization, xxi–xxii, 49–50, 86–87
Dowling, Julie, 183
Dreamers movement, xii, 190
Dred Scott (Scott v. Sandford): legal history, 229n92, 229n93; role of, 12, 141, 146; slavery and, 5, 109, 138, 140, 144, 230n103
Du Bois, W. E. B., 215n15
Durán, Tobias, 23
Ebright, Malcolm, 125, 207n40, 226n41
Ecuador, xvii, 164
education, ix, x, 172, 175–77, 179, 189
ejido system, of land distribution, 224n11
elites. See Mexican American elites
Elkins, Stephen B., 99, 210n111
El Salvador, 164. See also Salvadoran Americans
Emancipation Proclamation, 110, 114
Emerson, John, 140–41
empresario land grants, 224n11
English only legislation: in Arizona, 174; in Florida, 189
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 171
Equal Protection Clause, 178–79
españoles. See Spaniards
Espinoza, Joe, 178
Esquibel, José Antonio, 56, 58
Estevan (Zammouri) (explorer), 50–52, 205n1, 205n2, 206n5
Estrada, Leo, 172, 236n7
ethnicity, xix, 2–3, 209n77, 238n58
Euro-Americans: cartoons reflecting view of Mexicans, 80–81; definition, 13; settlers, Mexico, 18; views of Mexicans, 18–19, 26–28, 43–45, 63–67. See also whites
E-Verify, xii
exceptionalism, New Mexico, xxi, 9–10, 78, 192n35
executions, 15–16, 32, 42, 196n3, 201n99
Farago, Claire, 126
federal citizenship: for African Americans, 144; for Mexican Americans, 5–6, 47, 143, 145–46; slaves without, 109, 144; state citizenship compared, 45–47, 143, 205n154; Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and, 67, 86, 98–99, 142, 143, 146
federal court, xv, 63, 99, 130, 140–41
Fehrenbacher, Don, 109, 138, 142, 228n90, 230n103
Fernandez, Lilia, 180–81, 237n37
The First Immigrants: From Slave to Explorer exhibition, 205n1
Fleming v. Page, 230n109
Florida, xvi–xix, 45, 50, 141, 189
Foley, Neil, 3, 62, 107
Foos, Paul, 21–22
Forest Service, U.S., 128
Fox, Cybelle, 175
free persons, 104, 107–8, 144, 229n95, 229n98
Fremont v. United States, 230n109
Friedman, Lawrence, 34, 202n104, 202n107, 203n108, 203n110, 203n111
Fugitive Slave Act, 139
Fuller, Melville W., 136
Gadsden Purchase (1853), 194n18
Gallegos, José Manuel, 97–98, 218n57, 218n59
Gallegos, Juan, 125
Gallegos, Román, 125
Ganaway, Loomis, 105, 219n84, 221n109
Garcia, Gus, 177
García, José Manuel, 35, 37, 38
García, José María, 223n140
Garcia, Macario, 177
Garrard, Lewis, 31–32, 38, 196n3, 196n4
genízaros, 56–57, 126–27, 207n39, 207n40
Glazer, Nathan, 163
gold, in California, 7, 46, 129, 194n24
Gómez, Placido, 126
Gonzales, Alfonso, 187
Gonzáles, Phillip, 137, 174
Gonzáles, Tomás, 125
González, Deena J., 28, 208n54
Gordon, Linda, 232n156
Las Gorras Blancas, 137. See also the White Caps
grand juries: legal system and, 34–38, 93, 176; in New York County (1900), 202n105; race and, 41, 111–12, 114, 120, 202n107, 203n116, 221n118
Grant, Ulysses S., 20, 21
grants. See land grants
“greasers,” 29, 68, 209n78, 209n80, 209n86, 211n122
Gregg, Josiah, 202n103
Griswold del Castillo, Richard, 204n143, 204n147, 205n152
Guatemala, xvii, 164, 165, 169
Guerra, Pablo de la, 45
Guerrera, Pablo, 36
Gulati, Mitu, 206n26
Gutiérrez, Ramón, 52, 55, 103, 112, 206n17, 207n39
Haase, Ynez, 225n30
habeas corpus, 76, 223n140
Hale, Eugene, 153
Hall, Emlen, 216n18, 224n2
Hall, Willard P., 199n57
hangings (1847), 15–16, 32, 42, 196n3
Harris, Cheryl, 152, 232n163
Harrison, Benjamin, 134–35
Hartmann, Douglas, 3, 166–67
Hawaii, 8, 119, 195n27
Hayes, Rutherford B., 69, 210n94
Head, Lafayette, 114–15, 117
Hendricks, Rick, 207n40
Heredia, Tomás, 223n140
Hernandez, Pete, 178–79
Hernandez v. Texas (1954), 177–79, 237n26
Herrera, John, 177
hierarchy. See racial hierarchy
Hispanics, xvi, 13, 194n21, 235n45; demographics, 158–60; Mexican Americans as, x, 13, 191n5; racial identity and, 159–65, 167–69; white, 167. See also Latinos
“The Hispanic Political Elite” (Ramirez), 217n33
“Hispano,” 13, 209n77
Historical Sketches of New Mexico (Prince), 72
History of the Military Occupation of the Territory of New Mexico (Twitchell), 200n82, 217n41, 218n59
Homeland Security, xii, 188
Honduras, xvii, 165
Horsman, Reginald, 4, 18–19, 62, 204n141
Houghton, Joab, 35, 38, 39
Houston, Sam, 19, 204n144
identity. See racial identity
“identity performance,” 206n26
Ilahiane, Hsain, 51
“illegal aliens,” xiv, 60, 187–88, 238n59
Illinois, x, 108, 140, 188
immigration, 2, 205n1, 238n58; anti-, 169, 184–85; children and, xii, 186, 190, 191n13; Chinese and, 1, 145, 149, 231n133; deportations, xii, 160, 188; “illegal aliens,” xiv, 60, 187–88, 238n59; Japanese, 231n133; Latinos, 168; laws, xii, xviii, xx, 145, 149–50, 191n9, 193n5, 231n133; whites, 91–92
Immigration and Customs Enforcement, xii
imperialism, xxi, 4, 118, 142; racism and, 119, 212n141; support for, 212n137, 212n140, 223n153
Impossible Subjects (Ngai), 238n59
Indian peoples: citizenship for, 59, 145; on forced march, 117; genízaros, 56–57, 126–27, 207n39, 207n40; land and, 96, 99, 102–3; non-, 153, 194n24; as political outsiders, 65; population, 55, 58, 73–74, 195n25, 209n78; in racial hierarchy, 52–53, 56, 86, 90;
racial order and, 60; racial stereotypes, 67; rape of, 206n17; sexual exploitation of, 52; with slavery and Mexican American elites, 110–18, 222n134; with tourism and culture, 209n77. See also American Indians; Pueblo Indians
Indian/Spanish mestizos, in racial hierarchy, 53, 56
Indian Trade and Intercourse Act (1834), 99, 100
indios bárbaros (non-Pueblo Indians), 97
individual land grants, 224n11, 224n15
In re Rodriguez, 147–48, 150, 151, 231n135
Inter-Agency Committee on Mexican American Affairs, 158
intermarriage, 160–61, 208n54, 232n155
invasion of Mexico (by U.S.), 19, 22–25, 30–32; law and, 40–42
Jackson, Alexander, 105, 109
Jacobson, Matthew, 3
Japanese, 149, 231n133
Jaramillo, Ignacia, 25, 28, 29, 199n60
Jaramillo, Josefa, 28
Jefferson, Thomas, 61
Jemez Pueblo, 48, 216n16
Jenkins, Myra Ellen, 199n63
Johannsen, Robert, 20
Johnson, Andrew, 110, 113–14
Johnson, Lyndon B., 158, 193n5, 233n6
Julian, George, 133
juries: language and, 71–72, 222n119; in New Mexico, 202n106, 202n107, 203n110; petit, 34–37, 41, 93, 112, 120, 221n118; race and, 93, 177–78, 202n107, 221n118; role of, 93; on territorial courts, 70–72. See also grand juries
justice of the peace courts, 110–11. See also alcalde system
justices, territorial supreme court, 46, 93, 97, 116, 219n62
Kansas, 194n19, 195n27
Kearny, Stephen Watts, 125, 229n97; with military conquest of New Mexico, 22–26, 198n43, 198n48, 199n62; role of, 35, 40, 197n39, 198n53, 198n55
Kearny Code, 24, 199n57, 200n82, 201n101
Kit Carson Park, 214n169
Knight, Alan, 54
Kosek, Jake, 128
Kraemer, Paul, 57, 127
labor: Chinese and, 145, 147; discrimination in, 171; minimum wage, 188; race and, 16–17
Lacayo, Celia, 185
Laguna Pueblo, 218n58
La Madrid, Enrique, 125
Lamar, Howard, 199n59, 201n101, 202n103, 205n159
Lamy, Jean-Baptiste, 217n41, 218n57
land: claims, 125, 128, 130, 134–36, 227n46, 227n58; distribution, ejido system, 224n11; Indian peoples and, 96, 99, 102–3; laws, 99, 100, 129, 133, 134, 136, 225n34, 225n36, 225n38; of Mexican Americans with colonialism, 125–38; race and, 16–17, 130; transfers, 137, 227n45
land grants: San Miguel del Vado, 125–28, 132, 134, 137; types of, 224n11, 224n15, 225n24
Lane, William Carr, 97
language, 188–89, 205n1; barriers, 89, 215n13; courts with, 92, 94, 211n126; juries and, 71–72, 222n119; literacy and, 75–76, 174; statehood and, 75–76, 79. See also English only legislation