Manifest Destinies, Second Edition
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Larson, Robert W., 204n139, 210n111, 211n124, 220n90; on Beveridge, 212n143; on Quay, 213n153; role of, 75, 79, 83
Las Vegas, Nevada, 88–89, 213n150
Las Vegas, New Mexico, 23, 29, 75, 84–85, 215n8
Latina/o studies, x, xxviii
“Latina/o Whitening?” (Vargas), 184
Latinos: demographics, xvi–xx, 207n43; enrolled in higher education, x; immigration, 168; other, xvii, 164, 165, 169; population, ix–x, xvi–xx, 190, 194n21; racial identity and, 158–65, 167–69, 180–81, 186–87; racialization of, 181–85; whiteness and, 186–90; Zoot Suit Riots, 187. See also Cuban Americans; Dominican Americans; Mexican Americans; Puerto Ricans; Salvadoran Americans
laws, 5, 8, 232n163; civil rights, xiii, 76; immigration, xii, xviii, xx, 145, 149–50, 191n9, 193n5, 231n133; land, 99, 100, 129, 133, 134, 136, 225n34, 225n36, 225n38; language, 174; legal whiteness and, 87–91, 124, 149; marriage, 107; peonage, 114–15, 116, 223n140, 223n141; racial equality, 59, 76, 230n108; with racial groups, 96; with racism and one-drop rules, 12, 146–55; slavery, 108–9, 139–40, 220n99, 221n104, 221n106; trials in Mexico under U.S. civil, 32–43; voting, xiii, 233n6. See also legal systems
lawyers, 36–37, 203n108, 215n10; in first New Mexico trials, 36–42; land speculation and, 132–35
League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), 176, 178
Lee, Robert E., 20, 21
Lee, Sonia, 180
legal systems: grand juries and, 34–38, 93, 176; juries, qualifications, 70–72; language translation and, 92, 94; Mexican American elites with power in, 91–95; Spanish-Mexican, 33, 35, 201n101, 202n103; territorial legislature and, 93–94, 97–98; in U.S., nineteenth century, 34
Limerick, Patricia Nelson, 16–17
Lincoln, Abraham, 104, 110
Lipsitz, George, 119
literacy, 75–76, 174
López, Ian Haney, 146, 180, 182
López, Nancy, 173
López Tejerina, Reis, 137
Los Angeles, California, 22, 55, 169, 179–80, 187
Los Angeles Times, 176
Louisiana, 76, 138, 141, 152, 201n99, 228n81
Louisiana Purchase, 4, 61
Lucero, Juan Antonio, 37
Lucero, Pedro, 37
LULAC. See League of United Latin American Citizens
Luna, Jose Rafael, 199n60
Magoffin, James, 25, 199n59
Maine, 138, 153, 154
“Make America Great Again,” xiii, xxiii
Manifest Destiny: Civil War with catalyst of, 123–24, 138–46; historical connotations, 3–6, 193n15; imperialism and, 4
Marcy, William L.: with military conquest of New Mexico, 22–26, 197n41, 198n42, 198n43, 198n48, 199n62; role of, 39, 198n49, 198n53
Márquez, Lorenzo, 132
marriage, 28, 55, 103; intermarriage, 160–61, 208n54, 232n155; laws, 107
Marshall, John, 45
Martínez, Antonio José, 97, 203n116, 217n41; criticism of, 95–96; printing press and, 218n48; against slavery, 106–7
Martínez, José Andrés, 222n124
Martínez, Juan Domingo, 37
Martinez, Melquiades, 192n24
Martínez, Oscar, 194n20
Masto, Catherine Cortez, 192n24
Maxey, Sheldon, 147–49
Meeks, Eric, 174
Meléndez, Gabriel, 209n86, 216n23
Melzer, Richard, 81
Menchaca, Martha, 51, 54–55
Merry, Sally, 86
mestizos, 90, 97; citizenship for, 59, 96; with double colonization, 86–87; Indian/Spanish, 53, 56; population, 57, 58
Mexican American elites: African Americans and, 97, 103–10; Indian slavery and, 110–18, 222n134; with New Mexico and origin myths, 74, 85–86; with power in law, 91–95; Pueblo Indians and, 95–103; with whiteness and as non-whites, 87–91, 124, 149; as “white” rights-holders, 10–11, 12, 17–18, 47, 98, 118–21, 214n6
Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund, 172
The Mexican American People: The Nation’s Second Largest Minority (Grebler, Moore and Guzmán), 166, 192n27
Mexican Americans, xviii–xix, 14, 193n6, 215n10; citizenship for, 5–6, 47, 66–67, 91, 102, 143, 145–46, 166; civil rights movement, 176, 179; colonialism and, 4–5, 10, 12, 125–38; immigration history of, 1–2; as off-white, 13, 157–58; as off-white in twentieth century, 173–81; politics, in historical context, xx–xxiii; population, x, 55, 191n5, 194n20, 209n82; as racial group, 1–2, 5, 10–13, 17, 62, 160–61; in racial hierarchy, 5–6, 86; racial identity and, 165; racial order and, 61–62; racial stereotypes and, 64, 65–66, 175, 188–89, 209n79, 209n86; racism and, 66, 204n141; with racism and dominant view, 65–67, 82, 83; with racism and progressive view, 11, 65, 73–75, 82–83
Mexican Cession, 5–8, 159, 194n18
Mexico, xv, 18, 52, 160; population, 55, 193n6, 194n20; with Spanish-Mexican legal system, 33, 201n101, 202n103; U.S. civil law with trials in, 32–43. See also colonization, of Mexico
Mexico War. See U.S.–Mexico War
Michigan, x, 51, 189
Miera, Manuel, 37
military, U.S.: American G.I. Forum, 176–77; with Mexico and colonization, xxi, 10, 22–26, 73, 197n41, 198n42, 198n43, 198n48, 199n62, 200n82, 217n41, 218n59; U.S.–Mexico War (1846–1848) and, 20–43, 200n87, 201n90, 201n93, 201n96, 201n99, 201n100; volunteer soldiers and, 21, 22
Minority Rights Revolution (Skrentny), 235n41
Mirabal, Porfirio, 96
miscegenation laws, 107. See also intermarriage; sexual unions
Mississippi, 19, 76, 148, 153
Missouri Compromise (1819–20), 138–39, 141, 143
Missouri Territory, 24, 138, 228n81
Mitchell, Faith, 165
Molina, Natalia, 175, 182
Montejano, David, 195n28, 196n6
Montoya, Pablo, 32
Moore, Joan W., xviii–xix, 165–66
Mora, Cristina, 171, 172
Mora, New Mexico, 28–30
Morin, Jesse I., 30–31
Morton, Levi P., 134
Murray, William W., 135
myths, 16, 119; New Mexico and origin, 23, 74, 82, 85–86; tricultural harmony, 82, 214n168
Nájera, Jennifer, 182–83
Naranjo, Francisco, 37
National Alliance of Land Grants (Alianza Federal de Mercedes), 137
National Origins Act (1924), xviii
Native Americans, xi, 171, 173, 186, 224n10, 232n155. See also American Indians
nativism, xx, 186
Navajos, 53, 113, 216n16; with baptisms, 112; forced march of, 117; in racial hierarchy, 56, 90
Nelson, Knute, 153, 154
Nepokwa’I, 51
Nevada, 5, 46, 194n19; Las Vegas, 88–89, 213n150; statehood, 194n21, 195n27
New Mexico, 5, 72, 194n19, 200n82, 217n41, 218n59; borders, 234n21; demographics, 7, 73–74, 104, 194n20, 215n9; exceptionalism, xxi, 9–10; in historical context, xxi; juries in, 202n106, 202n107, 203n110; Mexican Cession and, 7; origin myth of, 74, 85–86; population of Hispanics in, 194n21; racial order in, 54, 58–64; statehood, 11, 43, 75–82, 105, 195n27, 204n139, 211n122, 213n151; U.S.–Mexico War (1846–1848) and, 22, 24–26, 197n41, 198n42, 198n43, 198n48, 199n62
New Mexico Bar Association, 134
New Mexico Historical Society, 72
New Mexico National Guard, 138
New Mexico’s Quest for Statehood (Larson), 204n139
New Mexico Supreme Court, 46, 219n62
New Orleans Daily Delta, 31, 200n84, 201n89, 201n99
New York, xix, 180
New York County (1900), grand juries in, 202n105
New York Times, 65–67, 76–77, 209n81
Ngai, Mae, 238n59
Nicaragua, xviii, 165
non-Pueblo Indians (indios bárbaros), 97
non-whites: Mexican American elites as, 87–91, 124, 149; Mexican Americans as, 13
North American Review, 72, 133
Obama, Barack, xii, xiii, xvii, 1
86, 187, 190
off-white, 193n7; Mexican Americans as, 13, 157–58; Mexican Americans in twentieth century, 173–81; “off-black” and, 193n7. See also whiteness
Oklahoma, 77, 80–81, 153, 194n19, 195n27, 233n170
Olivas, Michael, 178
Omi, Michael, xxii, 181
Omnibus Statehood Bill, 77, 78
Oñate settlement in New Mexico (1598), 55
one-drop rules: American Indians and, 232n155; defining racial categories, 12, 146–55; reverse, 6, 124, 150–51, 232n155
Orange County, California, 185
Oregon, 104
Ortiz, Alfonso, 59
Ortiz, Vilma, 168, 186
Otero, Antonio José, 93, 103
Otero, José, 35
Otero, Miguel Antonio, 103–5, 109–10, 218n59, 221n109
Otero, Miguel Antonio II, 103
Pacheco, Juan, 37
Palen, Joseph G., 112
Panama, xviii, 165
Panic of 1837, 193n15
Paraguay, xviii
pardon urged for treason (1847), 38
peonage laws, 114–15, 116, 223n140, 223n141
Peru, xvii, 164
petit juries, 34–37, 41, 93, 112, 120, 221n118. See also grand juries; juries
Pew Hispanic Center, 235n45
Philippines, 8, 78, 119, 212n141
Pierce, Franklin, 20
Plessy, Homer, 152–53, 232n162
Plessy and Ferguson Foundation, 232n162
Plessy v. Ferguson, 12, 144, 150–52
police: brutality, 176, 180; criticism of, 187
politics: of ethnicity, xix; Indian peoples as outsiders in, 65; with language translation, 94; Prince and, 210n97; Prop. 187, 189–90; Pueblo Indians and, 8, 68; role of, xi, xvi, xx–xxiii, 5, 17, 19, 76, 118, 139, 217n33; territorial legislature and, 93–94, 97–98; whites divided by, xiv
Polk, James: role of, 19, 23, 25, 39–40, 43, 130, 199n63, 226n41; slavery and, 139; Taos rebellion and, 200n84
population: Asian Americans, 190; blacks, 108; Cubans, xvi–xvii, 159; demographics and juries, 70–72; of Hispanics in New Mexico, 194n21; Indian peoples, 55, 58, 73–74, 195n25, 209n78; Latinos, ix–x, xvi–xx, 190, 194n21; mestizos, 57, 58; Mexican Americans, x, 55, 191n5, 194n20, 209n82; Mexicans, 55, 193n6, 194n20; non-Indian, 153, 194n24; Pueblo Indians, 7, 207n42; Puerto Ricans, xvi, 159; Salvadoran Americans, xvii; slaves, 18, 113, 196n15, 206n15; Spaniards, 57; whites, 215n9
Portes, Alejandro, 186
Potter, Clarkson, 76
power: land transfers and, 227n45; Mexican American elites with legal systems and, 91–95
Price, Sterling: Taos rebellion and, 200n87, 201n90, 201n93, 201n96; U.S.–Mexico War (1846–1848) and, 24, 28–31, 39, 200n88
Prince, L. Bradford, 210n94, 210n96, 210n97, 210n100; murder of Bent, Charles, and, 200n78; with New Mexico and origin myth, 74, 85–86; with race and tourism, 214n167; race narratives and, 67–73, 85, 209n75; with racism and progressive view, 73–74, 82, 101, 209n75; statehood and, 73, 75, 77, 210n106, 211n122
printing press, 218n48
progressive view of race, 101; in context, 209n75; white supremacy and, 11, 65, 73–75, 82–83. See also dominant view of race
Prop. 187, 189–90
property rights: colonialism and, 125–38; Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and, 130–31, 135, 226n40. See also land
psychological inducement, 90, 215n15
“psychological wages of whiteness,” 215n15
Pueblo Indians, 5; citizenship and, 98, 99; communities, 216n18; indio bárbaros, 97; Mexican American elites and, 95–103; origin myth of New Mexico and, 74, 85–86; political rights for, 8, 68; population, 7, 207n42; in racial hierarchy, 53, 56, 64, 86, 90–91; trials and, 203n120; U.S. Supreme Court on, 102; voting and, 97–98
Pueblo Militia, 113, 216n16
Pueblo Revolt (1680), 55–56, 207n34
Puerto Ricans, xiv, xvi, 159, 165–66, 180–81
Puerto Rico, 8, 78, 119, 164
Quay, Matthew S., 79–80, 153, 213n153
Querétero Protocol, 131, 226n44
race, xii, 2, 13, 58, 83, 149; categories, 51–52, 54–55; citizenship and, 17, 43–47, 67, 77, 81, 102; colonization of Mexico and, 16–17, 43–47; equality laws, 59, 76, 230n108; grand juries and, 41, 111–12, 114, 120, 202n107, 203n116, 221n118; identity and, 157–63; immigration and, 238n58; juries and, 93, 177–78, 202n107, 221n118; land and, 16–17, 130; narratives, 64–75, 200n78, 209n75; racism and, 14, 205n2, 208n55; as social construction, xiii, 3, 5, 153, 158; “some other,” 169, 235n38, 235n45; statehood debate and, 73, 75–82, 213n151, 233n168. See also dominant view of race; progressive view of race; stereotypes, racial
Racial Formation in the United States (Omi and Winant), xxii
racial groups: American Indians, 1, 161–62, 230n110; laws with, 96; Mexican Americans as, 1–2, 5, 10–13, 17, 62, 160–61
racial hierarchy, 52, 54–55, 57–58, 207n39; African Americans in, 5–6, 53; American Indians in, 56, 90, 145, 148, 173; Mexican Americans in, 5–6, 86; Pueblo Indians in, 53, 56, 64, 86, 90–91; “tri-ethnic trap” and, 209n77; whiteness and, 90–91, 232n156
racial identity: blacks and, 235n48; Hispanics and, 159–65, 167–69; Latinos and, 158–65, 167–69, 180–81, 186–87; “some other race” and, 169, 235n38, 235n45; U.S. Census and, 158–64, 169, 171–73, 183, 184, 191n5, 234n26, 234n28, 235n45, 235n47, 235n49, 236n7; white and, 165–68, 183–84, 235n41
racialization: colonization and, xxi; comparative, xxii, xxv; defined, xxii, 7, 181–82; Great Depression and, 160; of Latinos, xxii, 181–82, 184–85; of Mexican Americans, 12, 158, 169–70
racial order: citizenship and, 185; in New Mexico, 54, 58–64; slavery and, 61. See also racial hierarchy
racism, xiii; Buchanan with, 204n141; discrimination and, 235n50; imperialism and, 119, 212n141; one-drop rules and, 6, 12, 124, 146–55, 232n155; race and, 14, 205n2, 208n55; Roman Catholic Church with, 183; statehood and, 11, 66, 73, 209n81, 210n106, 211n122, 212n137, 212n146; with trials, 35. See also dominant view of race; progressive view of race; racial hierarchy; white supremacy
Racism in U.S. Imperialism (Weston), 212n137
Rael-Gálvez, Estévan, 105–6, 110, 113, 116, 118, 223n145
Rafferty, Patrick, 70
railroad, 88–89, 152
Ramirez, Carlos, 94, 217n33
rape, 34, 108, 187, 206n17
régimen de castas (caste regime), 53
religious conversion, 59–60, 88
Republican Party, 76, 190
residential segregation, 88–89
resistance: to assimilation, 65–66; to colonization of Mexico, 22, 26–32, 55–56; executions and, 15–16, 32, 201n99
Reynolds, Matthew, 135
Richardson, Bill, xi
riding circuit, 63, 69, 91–92, 112
rights, xiii, 5, 235n41; property, 125–38, 226n40; Pueblo Indians and political, 8, 68; water, 224n8; “white” rights-holders, 10–11, 12, 17–18, 47, 98, 118–21, 214n6. See also Civil Rights Act
Rocco, Ray, xxi, 181–82
Rodríguez, Clara, 235n38
Rodríguez, Sylvia, 82, 209n77, 214n168, 214n169
Román, Ediberto, 143, 195n26
Roman Catholic Church, 14, 183; baptisms, 112, 223n149; conversion to, 59–60, 88
Romero, Isidro, 37
Romero, Manuel, 37
Romero, Tomás, 32, 201n96
Romine, Richard, 70, 71
Roybal, Gregorio, 125
Rubio, Marco, xvi
Rumbaut, Ruben G., 186
Salazar, Polio, 36
Salvadoran Americans, xvii, 164, 165, 169
Samora, José Gabriel, 37
Sánchez, George, 146–47, 176
Sánchez, José María, 26
Sánchez, Rosaura, 58
Sando, Joe, 50, 59
Sandoval, Claudia, 184–85
Sandoval, Julian, 125, 131–32
Sandoval, Manuel, 37
San Felipe Pueblo, 216n16
San Miguel del Vado land grant, 125–28, 132, 134, 137
Santa Ana Pueblo, 216n16
Santa Cruz de la Cañada, New Mexico, 29, 53
Santa Fe, New Mexico, 22–23, 25–28, 32, 75, 84–85
Santa Fe Weekly Gazette, 104
Santistevan, Juna José, 111–12, 222n119
Sawyer, Mark, 235n50
SB 1070 (Arizona), xii
Scheurich, Teresina Bent, 28, 200n78
school segregation, 175–76
Scott, Dred, 229n95, 229n96, 229n98. See also Dred Scott
Scott, Winfield, 20
Scott v. Sandford. See Dred Scott
second-class citizenship, 5–6, 102, 145, 166
Secure Communities, xii, 188
segregation: residential, 88–89; Roman Catholic Church and, 183; school, 175–76; white supremacy and, 144–45
Segura, Gary, 190
Seminole Tribe, 141, 231n123
Sena, Catarino, 125
Sensenbrenner immigration bill (Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act) (2005), xx, 191n9
sexual unions, 27, 52, 55, 57–58. See also intermarriage; miscegenation; rape
Sisneros, Samuel, 199n60, 205n151
Skrentny, John, 235n41
slavery: Civil War and, 138–44, 229n101; Dred Scott and, 5, 109, 138, 140, 144, 230n103; end of, 5, 18, 106–7, 110, 114, 117, 138, 139–40; imperialism and, 142; Indian, 110–18, 222n134; laws, 108–9, 139–40, 220n99, 221n104, 221n106; in Mexico, 18, 52; racial order and, 61; Spain with, 51, 52; support for, 7, 18–19, 110, 124, 138–39, 141–42, 196n13, 223n145, 228n90, 229n97, 230n103
slaves, 205n1; American Indians with, 119, 222n124, 222n132, 224n10, 231n123; children as, 114–15; without federal citizenship, 109, 144; free, 104, 107–8, 144, 229n95, 229n98; genízaros, 57, 207n40; Mexican American elites and, 103–10; population, 18, 113, 196n15, 206n15
Sleepy Lagoon case (1942–43), 176, 180
Slough, John P., 99, 219n65, 219n70
Smith, Justin H., 197n40
social construction of race, xiii, 3, 5, 153, 158
Society for the Preservation of Spanish Antiquities, 72
sociology, ix, 8, 195n28
Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 238n58
“some other race”: compared to “other,” 162; racial identity and, 163, 169, 235n38, 235n45
South Carolina, 76, 103, 154
South Dakota, xx, 211n122
Spain: Mexico colonized by, xxi; origin myth of New Mexico and, 74, 85–86; with race in New Mexico, 58–59; slavery and, 51, 52; with Spanish-Mexican legal system, 33, 35, 201n101, 202n103