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intercommunal relations 9–11, 15, 17–18, 105, 107–8, 230–5, 265–83: population xxvi, 123, 193–4, 293–4; internal migration 40–2, 49–51, 53–7, 6; citizenship and identity 104, 296–7; central–regional tensions 104–5; religions and castes 105, 276–83; and language 107–11, 213; unrest and violence 182, 184–5, 190–2, 230–5, 272–4, 277–83, 304–5; assault on Golden Temple 203; new communalism in 208–10; Shah Bano affair 267–70; Hindu resurgence 267–72
economy: migration, diaspora and remittances xxx–xxxii; effect of globalisation xxxiii–xxxiv, 195, 294–5, 302; Five-Year Plans 112; success 115–16; famine and poverty 151; economy and nationalisation 182–3, 192, 208, 292–7, 302
external relations: relations with China 123–34, 185–6, 291–2; external affairs 123–5; borders of buffer states 125–6; relations with Soviet Union 164; assault on Sikkim 185–90; relations with US 207; and Sri Lanka 216–18; Accords signed and broken 235–42, 272; water-sharing with Bangladesh 254; and SAARC 300
Independence and Partition: as compromise xviii; absorbs princely states xxxii, 30, 59, 61, 87, 104–7; initial talks 1–8; allocation of territory 27–8, 30, 35–8, 40–2
politics and administration 36–7, 302–5: nation-building xxxii–xxxiii; democracy xxxiii, 104–5, 153, 207, 302–5; Nehru years (1947–64) 91, 95, 103–16; Communist influence 111–15; education in 113–14; nuclear programme 177, 185, 284–5, 295; elections 148–50, 152, 161, 235, 272, 274–5, 295; and the ‘Emergency’ 149, 191–4, 205–8, 303; Supreme Court 183–4, 268, 282; cronyism and nepotism 183–4; lull in protest and dissent 198, 200–3, 283; ideology and politics in 205–10; as secular state 205; Janata victory 206–9; in 1980s 265–6; setbacks 272–3; in 1990s 278–83; increased stability and reform in 292–7, 300–6; infrastructure 295; Unique Identification Scheme 296–7; humanitarian crisis in 306
relations with Pakistan: and Kashmir 76–8, 80, 237–9, 287–916; détente 134–5, 169–70, 286–7, 305–9; water-sharing 137–9; bans Pakistani overflights 161; Pakistani refugees in 163–4, 171
India Today 217
Indian Administrative Service 45
Indian Air Force 75
Indian Army 78, 230–1
Indian Civil Service 11, 37, 45
Indian Constitution 103–4, 106, 110, 113
Indian Express 277
Indian National Congress: and Cabinet Mission proposals 3, 4–8; and Muslim League 3, 4–8, 10, 12, 14–15, 24–6, 28; and Direct Action Day protests 9; blamed for economic hardship 14; and princely states 23–4; supports Dandakaranya plan 56; anti-monarchist policies 61; language and nationalism 110–11; problems facing 130; decline in 150–1; see also Congress
Indian Peace-Keeping Force (IPKF) (in Sri Lanka) 235–6, 273, 275
Indian Railways 23
Indo–Bangladesh border: migration and identity xx; enclaves xx–xxi; chars xxi; ring-fenced xxi
Indo–Burmese border xxii
Indo–Nepal border xxi–xxii, 119–20, 122, 255
Indo–Pakistan war (1965) (‘Bhutto’s War’) 145–6, 149, 153, 159, 177
Indo–Pakistan war (1971) (Bangladesh war) 166–8, 181–2
Indonesia 124, 131
Indore 60
Indus Waters Treaty (1960) 137–9
Infosys 295
Instruments of Accession 25, 59–61, 66, 75–6, 85
Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) agency 249, 282, 307
International Labour Organisation (ILO) 200
Irom, Sharmila 304–5
Islam 247–50: traditions xxiv; attitude towards Hindus xxiv, 8–9, 14–15, 17, 21, 38, 84, 136, 163–4, 166, 220–3, 226, 228, 274, 277, 279–83; and communal autonomy xxiv; in Pakistan xxvi, 30, 32–3, 40, 66, 92–5, 98, 100, 102–3, 143, 155, 157–8, 174–5, 179, 204–5, 247–50, 267, 282–3, 306–8; in India xxvi, 11, 96, 268–9, 273, 281; in Bangladesh xxvi, 204–5, 250–2; similarities with Hindus xxvii; grievances xxvii; and madrassahs xxxi; militarisation xxxiii, 66, 85, 283; and Constituency Assembly members 5; and Meos 18; casualties of Partition 43–6; fraternity with Hindus in Calcutta 47; in Jammu and Kashmir 59, 70, 73–4, 85, 236, 238, 281, 290; in princely states 63; migrations and remittances 66, 204; conversions in Tamil Nadu 204; and Mahatma Gandhi 205–6; and attacks on civilian targets 240
Islamabad xxxi, 141, 153–4, 163, 207, 286
Jaipur 18
Jaish-e-Mohamed 282, 290
Jalandhar (India) xxix, 140, 201
Jamaat-e-Islami xxiv, 94, 233, 248–50
Jammu 68, 71–3, 76, 161, 231
Jammu and Kashmir xxv, 22, 44, 60, 63–4, 68–9, 78–9, 87–90, 95, 105, 125, 135, 137, 165, 209, 237; see also Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) xxxi, 141, 236–8
Jana Sangh (Hindu party) 88–9, 103, 105, 108, 206–9
Janata Party 206–10, 224, 232, 304
Jandiali 201
Japan 239–40
Jatistan 20–1
Jayawardene, J.R. 215–18
Jessore 136
Jharkhand 106
Jhelum river 139, 238–9
Jhelum valley 75
jihad, jihadists xxv, 283
Jinnah, Mohamed Ali 245: problems concerning independence 3, 5–7, 24; and direct action protest 7, 10; reaction to violence and massacres 10, 14; demands for Pakistan 28, 30, 35; and Mountbatten’s Partition plan 30; eve of Independence speech 32, 92; becomes Governor-General of Pakistan 34; objects to naming of ‘India’ 36; and Junagadh 64; and Kashmir incursion 74; orders army to Kashmir 77; death 86, 103
Jodhpur 60
Jordan 247
JP Movement 184–5, 205–6; see also Narayan, Jayaprakash
Junagadh 63–5, 81
Junejo, Mohamed Khan 267
Kahuta 177, 285
Karachi xxviii, 40, 42, 54–5, 57, 61, 64–5, 70, 77–9, 83, 95, 97, 99–100, 103, 128, 139, 144, 167, 178, 244–7, 267, 302
Karakorum states 79
Karakorums 136
Kargil War (1999) 287
Karnataka 110, 277
Kashmir xxv, xxvii, xxxii, xxxiii, 21, 24, 50, 57, 76, 144, 304: not considered ‘India’ or ‘Pakistan’ 58–9, 65; description 59, 68; strategic importance of 60, 63–5, 70; Nehru family from 60–1; Pakistani interest in and incursions into 61, 65, 67–8, 72–6, 136–7, 144–7, 167, 287–91; location 68–70; historical background 68–9; politics 70–1; India’s involvement in 76–8, 80, 237–9, 290–1; Gilgit Scouts coup 78–80; Mountbatten’s scheme for 81–4; resumption of fighting in 85–6, 236–9; ceasefire 87; Indian incorporation of 87–90; as site of contention 90, 287, 306; options discussed 135–7; and disappearance of Muslim relic 136; war casualties 159; Line of Control 169, 236–7, 287–91, 301; Indo–Pakistan agreement over 169–70; and Mrs Gandhi 232–3; signs Accord with New Delhi 236; reprisal attacks on Muslims 281; elections 290; trade with India 290–1; reduction in violence 301; AFSPA in 305; see also Jammu and Kashmir
Kashmir Valley 68–72, 75, 79–80, 90, 135, 233
Katmandu 118, 120–1, 129, 255, 261–2, 299, 300
Katmandu Post 299
Kennedy, John F. 84
Kerala 110–15, 150, 200
Khalistan 17, 224, 231, 240–1
Khalistan movement xxxi–xxxii, 224–30
Khan, Abdul Qadeer 177
Khan, Akhtar Hameed 243–5, 247, 249, 285, 306
Khan, Amanullah 233, 236
Khan, Imran 307
Khan, Khan Abdul Wali 178
Khar, Mustafa 180
Khilnani, Sunil 102, 112, 153, 296
Khosla, Gopal Das 45–6
Khrushchev, Nikita 111
Khulna xviii, 42, 136
Khyber Pass 16
Khyber-Pakhtunwa Province 308
Kissinger, Henry 164, 166
Koirala, B.P. 121–2, 190
Koirala, Girija Prasad 256, 260, 262, 278
Kongka Pass (Ladakh) 128–9
Kurram 73
Ladakh 69–71, 80, 126, 129, 132–
3, 186, 291
Lahore xxviii, 8, 16, 37–9, 53–4, 141, 146, 161, 178, 287
Lal Bahini 172
Lamb, Alastair 70, 73, 79, 82
language xxii, 98–9, 107–11, 125, 150, 202–3
Lashkar-e-Taiba 282, 290
Laski, Harold 244
Le Corbusier 203
Lhasa 70
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) (Tamil Tigers) xxxi, 214–16, 236, 273, 275, 300
Liu Shaoqi 186
Lok Sabha 148, 235, 274, 283, 302–3
Longju 128–9
Longowal, Harcharan Singh 228, 241
Lucknow 54, 279
McMahon, Henry 128
McMahon Line 128–9, 131–3
Madhya Pradesh 11, 13, 268, 273, 285
Madras (Chennai) 13–14, 66, 110
madrassahs xxxi, 247
Mahabharata 272
Maharashtra state 112, 130
Mahasabha xxiv, 84, 103
Mahendra, King 121, 143
Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) (India 1974) 184
Makarios, Archbishop 124
Maldives 300–1
Malhotra, Jagmohan 193, 232–3, 238
Malom 304
Manali (Himachal Pradesh) 45
Manchuria xxxiv
Mandal, B.P. 276–8
Mandal and Mandir 276–9
Mandal Report (1980) 276
Mangla Dam 139
Manipur xxii, 60, 63
Mao Zedong 127
Marcos, Ferdinand 252
massacres and atrocities: ‘Great Calcutta Killing’ (1946) 8–10, 13–14; in run-up to Partition 11, 15, 21; in aftermath of Partition 38–40, 43–7, 159; in Bengal (1950) 97–8, 105; in Nagaland 107–8; in Kashmir (1963–64) 136; in East Bengal (1971) 162–4; in Assam (1983) 221–3 226; in Punjab (1984) 228–30; in aftermath of Indira Gandhi’s assassination (1984) 234–5; in run-up to 1989 elections 273–4; Hindu–Muslim riots (1990) 277, 279–83
Mathura 279
Maxwell, Neville 131, 150
Mayaram, Shail 18, 20
Mayawati, Ms 296–7
Meghalaya xxii
Meghna river xvii
Menon, Krishna 128–32
Menon, V.P. 25, 35, 59, 61
Meoistan 20–1
Mewat (Meo country) 17–22, 35, 44
Mianwali 46
migration and diaspora xix, xxviii–xxxii, 197: support for home communities xxx–xxxii, 198–202, 224, 231, 246; to the UK 139–41, 201, 212, 217, 224; to the Gulf 197–200, 217; to Canada 201, 212, 217, 224, 240; to the US 201, 217, 224
Mirpur (Azad Kashmir) xxix, 139–41
Mirza, General Iskander 99–102
Modi, Narendra 282
Mohamed, Ghulam 58, 65, 67, 70, 73, 77, 99–100
Mookherjee, Dr Shyama Prasad 89
Moon, Penderel 38–40, 42, 44–5
Mount Everest 117–18, 120–1, 129
Mountbatten, Lady Edwina 39
Mountbatten, Lord Louis 189: and handover of power 2, 25–6, 30, 33–5; replaces Wavell as Viceroy 25; second thoughts on Partition 33–4; at Independence Day ceremonies 39; and princely states 59–60, 63, 66–7, 106, 185; visits Srinagar 75; chairs Defence Committee 76; and Kashmir 76–7, 81–2; stands down as Governor-General 85
MQM party (Muttahida Qaumi Mahaz, United National Movement) xxxii, 57, 178, 245–6, 249
muhajirs 54–5, 57, 96, 178, 244–6
Mukti Bahini (Bangladesh guerrillas) 165–7
Murshidabad xviii
Musharraf, Pervez 250, 290–1
Muslim Conference 70–1
Muslim Family Law 142
Muslim League 47, 84, 246: and Cabinet Mission proposals 3–7; and Indian National Congress 3–8, 10, 12, 14–15, 24–6, 28; and direct action protest 7–11; growing popularity 14; and princely states 23–4; and possibility of Pakistan within India 28; and naming of ‘Pakistan’ 36; establishes Muslim state in Pakistan 93; problems with 94; loses seats in East Bengal 98–9; and elections 158
Muslim Women’s Bill 268
Muzaffarabad 75, 79, 290
Myanmar see Burma
Mymensingh province 171
Nabha state 19
Nagaland xxii, xxvii, 130, 144, 166, 223, 305
Nagar 78–9
Nagas xxiii–xxiv, xxxi, 106–7, 272, 304
Naipaul, V.S. 59, 148, 150, 191, 197, 266, 272
Nair Service Society 114
Namboodiripad, E.M.S. 113
Narain, Raj 148–9, 152–3, 184, 188, 191, 302
Narayan, J.P. 184, 188, 190–2, 205, 207–8, 274
Narayanhithi Palace (Katmandu) 259
Narmada 15
National Awami Party 158
National Conference 70, 89, 209–10, 232–3
National Council of Khalistan 224
National Democratic Alliance (NDA) 283–4, 291, 295
National Front 274–5, 277
National Planning Commission 112
Naxalbari 116
Naxalite revolutionaries xxxii, 57, 116, 227
Nazimuddin, Khwaja 96, 98
Nehru, Arun 271
Nehru, B.K. 232
Nehru, Jawaharlal 54, 68, 202: problems concerning independence 3, 5–7; and violence 10, 14, 97; and all-Indian nationhood 27; responsibility for Partition 27–8; on Greater Pakistan 30; endorses Mountbatten’s Partition plan 30, 35; eve of Independence speech 31; at Independence Day ceremonies 39; views refugee column 44; and Hindu migration 48–9; and non-alignment 68, 124–5, 127, 132, 135; supports Sheikh Abdullah 70–1, 77, 88; and Jammu and Kashmir 77, 81; relations with USSR 82; secularism 83–4; influence 103–16; and Nagaland 106–7; admires Soviet bloc 111–12; relations with China 123–34; releases Sheikh Abdullah 136; death 134
Nehru family 60–1
Nellie massacre (1983) 221–3, 235
Nepal xxi–xxii, xxxiii, 61, 67, 116, 125, 129, 185, 301: and conquest of Everest 118, 120–1; Rana rule 118–19; and India 119–20, 122–3; international engagement 120–1; democracy in 121; monarchy 121–2, 259–62; description of 122; relations with Tibet and China 122–3, 255, 260; migration, diaspora and remittances 200; politics 254–6, 260–3; relations with India 254–6, 261, 262–3; protests and violence 255–7, 260, 262; Maoist control in 256–60; NGO activity in 257–8, 261; murder of royal family 259–60; elections 261–3, 299; Seven Party Alliance 261–2; tourism 261, 263–4; preparations for SAARC Summit 299
Nepal–Tibet border 118, 122–3, 129
Nepali Congress Party 118–19, 121, 190, 255
New Delhi xxxi, 1, 30, 36–7, 58, 61, 70, 72, 75, 80–1, 83, 95, 128, 131, 133–4, 150, 163, 203, 216, 281, 286
New York 231, 234, 287
Nirankari sect 226
Nixon, Richard 164, 166, 167
Noakhali 10, 46
Non-Aligned Movement 68, 124–5, 127, 164
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 252–4, 257–8
Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) xxxi
Norgay, Tenzing 117–18, 120–1
North Vietnam 124
North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) 126, 128–9, 132–3, 186; see also Arunachal Pradesh
North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) 14, 19, 47–8, 64–5, 73, 178, 308; see also Khyber-Paktunwha
Northern Areas 117, 134, 136, 233, 308
oil 195–6, 200, 293
Ojhri 286
‘Operation Blue Star’ (1984) 203, 227–30, 241: aftermath 230–5
‘Operation Searchlight’ (1971) 161–8
Orangi (slum township) 244, 247
Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) 244
Organisation of the Islamic Conference 169
Orissa 56, 106, 116, 231
Osman, John 33
Other Backward Castes (OBCs) 276–7
Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) xxxi
Pabna river xvii
Padmanabhan, Mannathu 114–15
PAKISTAN xviii, xxiii, xxiv, 16: and regional similarities xxvii–xxviii, xxxii–xxxiii
; eastern wing 92; borderlands 126, 135; division of 134; nuclear programme 177–8, 285; humanitarian crisis 306; bin Laden in 306–7; population 308; see also East Pakistan (East Bengal)
intercommunal relations: religion in xxxiii, 175, 204–5, 247–9; reaction to sharia law 19; fissiparous tendencies in 34; internal migration 38–57, 66, 116, 178–9; conflicting identity 93; atrocities in 162–3; refugees 163–4; as Islamist state 245–50, 267
economy: migration, diaspora and remittances xxxii, 139–41, 198–200, 246, 267; per capita income 142; black economy 245
external relations: relations with US 95, 144–5, 216; relations with China 135–6, 151, 164; as member of SAARC 300; relations with Afghanistan 245, 247–8, 250
Independence and Partition: nation-building xxxii–xxxiii, 91–6; initial talks concerning 3–5; opinions concerning possibility of 11–15; allocation of territory 27–8, 30, 35–8, 40–2; and idea of Greater Pakistan 28, 30; Jinnah’s eve of Independence speech 32–3; naming of 36; Jinnah’s vision for 92–5
politics and administration 37–8, 176: Basic Democracy in xxxiii, 142–4, 153, 155, 254; and Direct Action Day 8; Ayub Khan years (1958–69) 91, 95, 134–47, 254; factionalism and corruption 95–6; declared Islamist state 100; One-Unit scheme 100, 154; political activity in 100–2, 249–50; failure of 102–3; relocation of capital 141; infrastructure 141–2, 308; elections 153, 158–61, 246, 250–1, 307; and Six-Point programme 154–5, 159–60; Martial Law 157; Legal Framework Order 157–8; struggle over East Pakistan 160–1; repositioning of 174–5; new Constitutions 175–6; secessionist movements 176; army’s role in 176–7; Zia’s coup 179–81; self-help schemes 244; in 1980s 266–7
relations with India: and Kashmir 61, 65, 67–8, 72–6, 136–7, 144–7, 237, 287–91, 308; ridicules India 130; détente 134–5, 169–70; and water-sharing treaty 137–9, 141; Agartala Conspiracy 155; and ‘Operation Searchlight’ 161–8; Indo–Pakistan war (1971) 166–8; blamed for unrest in India 282–3; attempts to normalise relations 286–7, 305–9
Pakistan Administrative Service 45
Pakistan Assembly 32
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission 177
Pakistan Muslim League-N (PML-N) 307
Pakistan National Alliance 178–9
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) 159–60, 175, 178, 198, 246, 291
Panjiar, Prashant 280
Parmar, Talwinder Singh 240
Partition (1947) xxxiii–xxxiv,102, 104, 111, 118, 128: regrets concerning xviii, 99; and identity xix, 15–21; fluidity of borders xix–xxi; migration and diaspora xix, xxviii–xxxii; and religion xxiv–xxv, 15–20, 83, 92–4; discord as result of xxv–xxvii; as shared experience xxviii; events leading up to 1–26; Darling’s mission 11–20; allocation of territory 27–8, 30, 35–8; Jinnah and Nehru’s speeches on eve of 30–3; Mountbatten’s involvement in 33–5; atrocities 38–40, 43–7, 68, 71, 97; and interchange of population 40–2, 49–51, 53–7, 66; modern impact of 57; two-nation principle 77, 287; and language 98; and water-sharing treaty 137–9