Less Than Human
Page 35
40. For brain damage, see J. R. Anderson, Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 2005). For the folk-biological module, see S. Atran, “Folk biology and the anthropology of science,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21, no. 4 (1998): 547–569. For critical views see the responses to Atran’s target article in Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21, no. 4 (1998):547–569.
41. F. C. Keil, Concepts, Kinds and Cognitive Development (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 190, 205.
42. Ibid., 215.
43. Ibid., 176,180.
44. Hirschfeld, Race in the Making, 96.
45. Ibid., 98.
46. Ibid., 138. The first anecdote is from P. Ramsay, “Young Children’s Thinking about Ethnic Differences,” in Children’s Ethnic Socialization, eds. J. Phinney and M. Rotherham (London: Sage, 1987), 60.
47. For his arguments in favor of this view, and against its most plausible alternative, see L. A. Hirschfeld, “Who Needs a Theory of Mind?” in R. Viale, D. Andler and L. A. Hirschfeld, Biological and Cultural Bases of Human Inference (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006). For a critical assessment of his research and conclusions, see E. Machery and L. Faucher, “Why Do We Think Racially?” in Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science, eds. H. Cohen and C. Lefebvre (New York: Elsevier, 2005).
48. K. W. Wamwere, Negative Ethnicity: From Bias to Genocide (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), 45.
49. See Machery and Foucher, 2005, who cite R. G. Klein, The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999) and, importantly, P. J. Richerson and R. Boyd, “The evolution of human ultra-sociality,” in I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt and F. K. Salter, Indoctrinability, Ideology and Warfare (New York: Berghahn Books, 1998) and P. J. Richerson and R. Boyd, “Complex Societies: the Evolution of a Crude Superorganism,” Human Nature 10: 253–289.
50. Judges 12: 5–6.
51. E. H. Erikson, “Pseudospeciation in the Nuclear Age,” Political Psychology, 6, no. 2 (1986): 214.
52. F. J. Gil-White, “Are Ethnic Groups Biological ‘Species’ to the Human Brain?,” Current Anthropology 42, no. 4: 519.
53. Ibid., 432.
7. THE CRUEL ANIMAL
1. D. Penn, K. J. Holyoak and D. Povinelli, “Darwin’s Mistake: Explaining the Discontinuity Between Human and Nonhuman Minds,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31(2008), 109.
2. W. Shakespeare, King Lear, I. iv.
3. M. Twain, What Is Man?: And Other Philosophical Writings (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), 84–85.
4. E. O. Wilson and B. Hölldobler, Journey to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 59.
5. R. Wrangham and D. Peterson, Demonic Males: Apes and the Origin of Human Violence (New York: Matiner, 1997), 219.
6. Ibid., 70.
7. J. Goodall, Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1990), 108–109.
8. R. W. Wrangham, “Evolution of Coalitionary Killing,” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 42, no. 1(1999): 1–30.
9. Ibid., 22.
10. R. B. Ferguson, “Materialist, Cultural and Biological Theories on Why Yanomami Make War,” Anthropological Theory 1, no. 1 (2001): 106.
11. Wrangham and Peterson, Demonic Males, 14.
12. Chagnon, 128–130.
13. Wrangham and Peterson, Demonic Males, 18.
14. Goodall, Through a Window, 210.
15. B. Hölldobler and E. O. Wilson, The Ants (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990).
16. Anderson developed the concept of imagined communities to explain nationalism, but he recognized that it has a much wider application, writing that “all communities larger than primordial villages of face-to-face contact (and perhaps even these) are imagined.” B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (New York: Verso, 1983), 6.
17. K. Vonnegut, Galápagos: A Novel (New York: Dial Press, 1999), 9.
18. C. Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (Charleston, SC: Bibliolife, 2009), 168.
19. D. Hume, Dialogs and Natural History of Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 141.
20. S. Guthrie, Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 62, 91.
21. Goodall, Through a Window, 108–109.
22. See D. Bickerton, Adam’s Tongue: How Humans Made Language, How Language Made Humans (New York: Hill and Wang, 2009).
23. W. James, The Principles of Psychology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 462.
24. D. J. Goldhagen, Worse Than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity (New York: PublicAffairs), 191–192.
25. G. Berkeley, “Three Dialogs between Hylas and Philonous,” in Principles of Knowledge/Three Dialogues (London: Penguin, 1988), 195.
8. AMBIVALENCE AND TRANSGRESSION
1. S. Freud, “Totem and Taboo,” in The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. J. Strachey, vol. 13 (London: Hogarth Press and the Institute for Psycho-Analysis, 1950), 65.
2. D. A. Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1996), 92–93.
3. G. L. Vistica, “One Awful Night in Tanh Phong,” New York Times Magazine, April 29, 2001, 131.
4. B. Shalit, The Psychology of Combat and Conflict (New York: Praeger, 1988), 2. Cited in D. Grossman, On Killing.
5. J. G. Gray, The Warriors: Reflections on Men in Battle (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 51.
6. E. Jünger, Der Kampf als inneres Erlebnis (Berlin: E.G. Mittler & Sohn, 1925). Quoted in translation in Gray, The Warriors, 52.
7. W. Broyles Jr., “Why Men Love War,” Esquire, November 1984, 57.
8. J. Ramirez, “Carnage.com,” Newsweek, May 10, 2010. The term war porn comes from the French philosopher Jean Baudrillard’s paper of the same name, in The Conspiracy of Art: Manifestos, Texts, Interviews (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005).
9. S. L. A. Marshall, Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000), 78–79. In recent years Marshall’s claims have come under fire. See R. J. Spiller, “S. L. A. Marshall and the Ratio of Fire,” RUSI Journal (1988): 63–71. E. Thomas, “Fire Away: Exploding One of Military History’s More Enduring Myths,” Newsweek, December 12, 2007. For a more balanced assessment, see K. C. Jordan, “Right for the Wrong Reasons: S. L. A. Marshall and the Ratio of Fire in Korea,” Journal of Military History 66, no. 1(2002): 135–162
10. R. A. Kulka et al., Trauma and the Vietnam War Generation: Report of Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1990).
11. Marshall, Men Against Fire, 78.
12. W. Manchester, Goodby Darkness: A Memoir of the Pacific War (New York: Dell, 1980), 17–18.
13. In E. C. Johnson (ed.), Jane Adams: A Centennial Reader (New York: Macmillan, 1960), 273.
14. R. M. MacNair, Perpetration-Induced Traumatic Stress: The Psychological Consequences of Killing (New York: Praeger/Greenwood, 2002), 47.
15. A. Fontana and R. Rosenheck, “A Model of War Zone Stressors and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 12 (1999): 111–126; R. M. MacNair, “Perpetration-inducted Traumatic Stress in Combat Veterans,” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 8 (2002): 63–72; S. Maguen et. al., “The Impact of Killing in War on Mental Health Symptoms and Related Functioning,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 22, no. 5 (2009): 435–443. M. S. Kaplan, et al. “Suicide Among Male Veterans: A Prospective Population-based Study, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 61 (2007): 619–624. H. Hendon and A. P. Haas, “Suicide and Guilt as Manifestations of PTSD in Vietnam,” Journal of American Psychiatry 138 (1991): 586–591. http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/pages/ptsd-suicide.asp>. See also J. E. S. Phillips, None of Us Were Like This Before: American Soldiers and Torture (New York: Verso, 201
0).
16. J. Shay, Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming (New York: Scribner, 2002); B. T. Litz et al., “Moral Injury and Moral Repair in War Veterans: A Preliminary Model and Intervention Strategy,” Clinical Psychology Review 29 (2009), 700.
17. Litz et al.; B. P. Marx, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom: Progress in a Time of Controversy,” Clinical Psychology Review 29 (2009): 671–673.
18. Ibid., 697.
19. J. Diamond, “Vengeance Is Ours: Annals of Anthropology,” The New Yorker, April 21, 2008, 74.
20. Diamond’s article eventuated in a ten million dollar law suit by his informant. C. Silverman, “New Yorker under Siege,” Columbia Journalism Review, May 22, 2009.
21. G. Orwell, “Looking Back on the Spanish War,” Facing Unpleasant Facts: Narrative Essays (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008), 149.
22. E. Lussu, Sardinian Brigade (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1939), 174.
23. Dean, 108.
24. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Human Ethology (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1989), 420.
25. H. H. Turney-High, Primitive War: Its Practices and Concepts (Charleston, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 225. See also J. M. G. van der Dennen, “The Politics of Peace in Primitive Societies: The Adaptive Rationale Behind Corroboree and Calumet,” in I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt and F. K. Salter, Ethnic Conflict and Indoctrination: Altruism and Identity in Evolutionary Perspective (New York: Berghahn Books, 1998).
26. R. Sapolsky, “A Natural History of Peace,” Foreign Affairs 85, no. 1 (2006): 119.
27. R. Wrangham, Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human (New York: Basic Books, 2009).
28. D. L. Cheney and R. M. Seyfarth, How Monkeys See the World: Inside the Mind of Another Species (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
29. D. G. Bates and J. Tucker (eds.), Human Ecology: Contemporary Research and Practice (New York: Springer, 2010).
30. A. Clark, Supersizing the Mind: Embodiment, Action, and Cognitive Extension (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 58.
31. M. Kawai, “Newly-acquired Pre-cultural Behavior of the Natural Troop of Japanese Monkeys on Koshima Islet,” Primates 6, no. 1 (1965): 1–30.
32. D. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (New York: Little Brown and Company, 1991), 195.
33. S. J. Mithen, The Prehistory of The Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion, and Science (London: Thames and Hudson, 1999); S. J. Mithen, The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); S. J. Mithen and L. Parsons, “The Brain as a Cultural Artifact,” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 18, no. 3. (2008): 415–422; S. Mithen, “Ethnobiology and the Evolution of the Human Mind,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Society 12, no. 1 (2005): 45–61. See also P. Carruthers, “The Cognitive Functions of Language,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25 (2002): 657–726.
34. H. Ofek, Economic Origins of Human Evolution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 172–173.
35. O. Bar-Yosef, “The Archaeological Framework of the Upper Paleolithic Revolution,” Diogenes 54 (2007): 3–18
36. S. L. Kuhn and M. C. Stiner, “Paleolithic Ornaments: Implications for Cognition, Demography and Identity,” Diogenes 54 ( 2007), 47–48.
37. J. Gulaine and J. Zammit, The Origins of War: Violence in Prehistory (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005), 55–56.
38. C. Spencer, British Food: An Extraordinary Thousand Years of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 149.
39. A. Hyatt Verrill, Wonder Creatures of the Sea (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1940).
40. Philipians, 3:2; “Iranian Cleric Denounces Dog Owners,” BBC News, October 14, 2002
41. N. Z. Davis, “Religious Riot in Sixteenth-Century France,” in The Massacre of St. Bartholomew: Reappraisals and Documents, ed. A. Soman (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1974), 209–219.
42. Gray, The Warriors, 148.
43. Rick Atkinson and Dan Boltz, “Allied Bombers Strike Shifting Iraqi Troops,” The Independent, February 6, 1991; “The Reality of War,” Observer, March 30, 2003; “Perspectives,” Newsweek, May 3, 2004.
44. D. Quammen, Monster of God: The Man-Eating Predator in the Jungles of History and the Mind (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2003), 3.
45. B. Ehrenreich, Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passions of War (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1997), 49.
46. E. Gardiner, Visions of Heaven and Hell Before Dante (New York: Italica, 1989), 140.
47. J. E. Salisbury, The Beast Within: Animals in the Middle Ages (New York: Routledge, 1994). E. Gardiner, Visions of Heaven and Hell Before Dante (New York: Italica Press, 2008). Augustine, “The Christian Combat,” in The Writings of Saint Augustine, vol. 4 (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1947), 317.
48. M. Perry and F. M. Schweitzer, Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 76.
49. P. Krentz and E. L. Wheeler (eds. and trans.), Polyaenus: Stratagems of War II (Chicago: Ares, 1994), 625.
50. These quotations are from A. Malouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes, trans. J. Rothschild (New York: Schocken Books, 1984), 39.
51. S. Keen, Faces of the Enemy: Reflections on the Hostile Imagination (New York: HarperCollins, 1986).
52. Iliad, 15: 604–30, 24: 207, 24: 43, 16: 155–67, quoted in Gottschall, 280.
53. B. Ehrenreich, Blood Rites, 11.
54. A. Palmer, Colonial Genocide (Adelaide: C. Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2001), 44f; J. La Nause, The Making of the Australian Constitution (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1972); J. La Nause, The Making of the Australian Constitution (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1972); “‘Plenty Shoot ’Em’: The Destruction of Aboriginal Societies Along the Queensland Frontier,” in Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History, ed. A. D. Moses (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004), 155, 159.
55. Herodotas, Histories, trans. G. Rawlinson (London: Wordsworth, 1999), 326.
56. R. J. Chacon and D. H. Dye (eds.), The Taking and Displaying of Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians (New York: Springer, 2007), 7.
57. R. F. Murphy, “Intergroup Hostility and Social Cohesion,” American Anthropologist 59 (1957), 1025–1026, 1028.
58. J. R. Ebert, A Life in a Year: The American Infantryman in Vietnam, 1965–1972 (Novato, CA: Presidio), 280.
59. P. Fussell, “Thank God for the Atomic Bomb,” in Thank God for the Atomic Bomb and Other Essays (New York: Summit, 1988), 26.
60. P. Fussell, Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 117.
61. P. Fussell, “Postscript (1987) on Japanese Skulls,” in Thank God for the Atomic Bomb and Other Essays (New York: Summit, 1988), 48.
62. A. Santoli, Everything We Had: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Thirty-Three American Soldiers Who Fought It (New York: Ballantyne, 1981), 98–99.
9. QUESTIONS FOR A THEORY OF DEHUMANIZATION
1. S. Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1961), 97.
2. P. Watson, War on the Mind: The Military Uses and Abuses of Psychology (New York: Basic Books, 1978), 250.