The New Trail of Tears
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military service
American Indians, 3–4, 141, 175
enlistment rates, GEAR UP, 141
veteran housing, 3–4
veterans, honoring, 175
Milke, Mark, 32
Mohawk, John, 64
Moore, Johnston, 147–148
Moore, Keith, 102–103, 141, 177
Moore, Lenora, 108
Morris, Elizabeth, 145–146, 150, 153, 159
Morris, Glenn, 172
Morris, Roland, 145–146
Morton, Samuel George, 9
Mount Saint Mary’s College, 117
Naison, Mark, 125
National Congress of American Indians, 171
National Museum of the American Indian, 175
Native American Day, 172
Native American Housing Block Grant Program, ix–x
native language curriculum, 116, 138, 177
natural resources
energy reserves, development of, 13, 19
federal controls on, 19–20
Indian management of, 13–14
Navajo Nation, 65–66
Navajo Watergate, 65–66
Nelson, Dan, 136–137
Nephew, Richard, 91
New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (Mann), 13–14
Nlaka’pamux Nation, 41
Nocona, Peta, 45
Northern Cheyenne, 6–7, 19–21, 87, 178. See also Saint Labre Catholic school
Nott, Josiah, 9
Obama, Barack, 65, 101, 170
Obama, Michelle, 26
Oglala Lakota College, 128, 134
Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma, 57
Olson, Walter, 147
Original Americans Foundation, 169–170
Oxendine, Dobbs, 71–74
Oxendine, Hilton, 73, 75
parents
children, expectations of, 94, 117–118
concerns of, 91–93
fathers, funds replacing, 150
possibilities for children, understanding, 118, 136, 183
preventing college, 92–93, 118–119, 135
reform, rejection of, 94, 97
parents, schools and
complaints about, 99, 135–136
distrust of, 94, 120, 134–135
involvement in, 84, 114–115, 134–135
tribal leaders, 133–134
Parker, Cynthia, 45
Parker, Quanah, story of, 45–46
patronage jobs, 64
Penhollow, Alexis, 92–94, 97
Pequot Indians, 177
Perrelli, Thomas J., 162
Perry, Ted, xii
Phelps, Alice, 82–86, 125
Phelps, Stacy, 82, 85, 137–138, 141
phrenology, 9
physical education, 106
Pine Ridge reservation, 82–83, 136–137, 151
PLACE Advocacy, 18
poverty, viii, 4, 40, 74, 76, 82
“Poverty and Health Disparities for American Indian and Alaska Native Children” (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences), 174
power, political
casino revenues and, 179
Lakota, 101
Seneca Nation, 62, 96, 179
tribal government, federal funds increasing, 179
Pratt, Richard Henry, 121
Prevent All Cigarette Trafficking Act (PACT Act), 57
property
as dead capital, 15
inheriting, 17, 43–44
transfers, 12
value of, effects on, 15, 24
property ownership. See also First Nations property rights; trust authority, BIA
citizenship and, 11
countries with, effects of, 15
Dawes Act allowing for, 10–12
Douglas Treaties establishing title, 31
economics and, 17, 19
by freedmen, 11
historically, mythology of, 14, 25–26, 41–42
as magical force, 14–15
reservation land allotments, 10–12, 15–16
waiting period pre-full ownership, 11, 15
Quechan Tribe, 169–171
rape and sexual abuse, viii, 160–163
Red Cloud (Holy Rosary Mission school), 121–123, 138–141, 180
reform. See also education reform
change agents, opposition to/criticism of, 179–180
First Nations leaders for change, 45–46
possibility of, 182
Regan, Shawn, 19
removal schools
abuse, physical and sexual in, 123–124, 150–151
lasting effects, 150–152
purpose, 120–123
Renbarger, Joni, 153, 159
reparations, ix, 124–125
reservation land
marijuana on, 50
natural resources, federal controls on, 19–20
waiting period pre-full ownership, 11, 15
white ownership of, 12
reservation land allotments, 10–12, 15–16
reservations
benefits promised, 8
constitutional protections on, 163–168
number of, xii
obligations to stay on, 135
policies, historically, 9
removal to
after Battle of Little Bighorn, 3
return to
college students, 92–93, 119
employment opportunities, 55, 119, 127, 130–131
reasons for, 130–131
town centers, 6
reservation system
creating the, 8
U.S. vs. Canadian, 28–29, 34–35
reserve system (Canada), 28–29, 34–35
residential school system (Canada), 120, 123–125
Resolution of the Crow Tribal Legislature to Honor God for His Great Blessings upon the Crow Tribe and to Proclaim Jesus Christ as Lord of the Crow Indian Reservation, 120
return to the reservation
college students, 92–93, 119
employment opportunities, 55, 119, 127, 130–131
reasons for, 130–131
Robeson County, NC, 67–68, 74, 100, 105–115
Rosebud reservation, 69
Ross, Michael, 64
Royal Proclamation (1763), 28
Russell, Winfield, 6, 20, 86, 117–118
Ruth Danley and William Enoch Moore Fund, 135
Saint Labre (town), 115–116
Saint Labre Catholic school, 115–120, 180
Salamanca, NY, 48
Salazar, Ken, 102
Sam, Kiva, 129
San Manuel band of Mission Indians, 50
Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez, 164–165
Saudi Arabia-Seneca Nation compared, 63–64
Schaap, James Calvin, 173–174
Schapp, Justin, 60, 66
schools. See also charter schools; removal schools; residential school system (Canada); teachers
schools, math/science summer programs
high-school completion rates, 141
military enlistment rates, 141
parents, 107–108, 111
physical education, 106
post-secondary attendance rates, 141
student accountability, 106, 112–113
student attitudes, 109–110, 112
teachers, 108–110
tuition, 107
violence in, 108
schools, off-reservation
American Indians, curriculum on, x
TFA teachers, acceptance of, 132
schools, private
boarding facilities, 119
college acceptance rates, 116
college attendance rates, 117, 139
college students, support for, 119
community programs in, 115
culture/heritage, retaining, 115–116, 138
dropout rates, 116
goals of, 116
parents suspicion of, 94, 120
success, pater
nalistic policies and, 117
transportation to offered by, 119
tribal leaders suspicion of, 120
tuition at, 119, 140
schools, private students
accountability, 117
boarding facilities, 119
exposing to life off-reservation, 117
parental expectations for, 94
safety of, 82–83, 85, 88, 90–91, 106, 117, 139
schools, reservation
attendance rates, 133
BIE, conditions of, x
completion rates, 87
culture/heritage, retaining, 177
dropout, reasons for, 135
family politics, 133–134
funding, 91, 96–97, 101
funding per student, 91
funds mismanagement, 102
high-school completion rates, 85, 87
leadership, 99, 103, 115
politics of, 137
private school alternative rejected, 94, 97
quality of, tribal leaders power over, 101
spending per student vs. statewide average, 87–88
truancy laws, 133
tuition subsidies, 92
violence in, 91
schools, reservation parents
complaints of, 99, 135–136
concerns of, 91–93
distrust of system, 134–135
involvement in, 84, 114–115, 134–135
possibilities for students, understanding, 136
preventing college, 92–93, 135
private school alternative rejected, 94, 97
schools, reservation students
accountability, 84, 133–134, 153
attitudes of, 133
demonstrating possibilities to, 136
desires for, 138
obligations of, 135
obligations to, 138
spending on, 87–88
school standards, x–xi
Schweikart, Larry, 26
Scott, Stephen, 51
Seattle, Chief, x–xii
Secwépemc Nation, 41
Self Determination: The Other Path for Native Americans (Anderson, Benson, & Flanagan, eds.), 53
self-sufficiency, desire for, 27
Seneca Allegany Resort and Casino, 49, 52–53
Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino, 49
Seneca Holdings, 55–56, 59, 64–65, 179
Seneca Nation
development and planning office, 55–60
discouragement among members, 60–61
displacement, Kinzua Dam incident, 61–62
education, cultural attitudes toward, 91–97
entitlement attitude, 48
political power, 62, 96, 179
return to the, 92–93
safety nets for the elderly, 96
tribal government, dissatisfaction with, 64–65
youth, 49–50, 93
Seneca Nation economic development
annuities effect on, 96
contracting jobs, 58–59
gaming compact with NY state, 48–49
government contracts, 43, 58–59
radio station, 55–56
rent-seeking, 60–61
small businesses, 47–48, 62–63
solving from the bottom up, 62–63
sovereign advantages, 56–59
tribal wealth, effect on, 64
work ethic driving, 59
Seneca Nation economy
employment opportunities, 43, 48–49, 55, 63, 64–65
entrepreneurial spirit in, 47–48, 96
gaming revenues, 49, 54–55, 57–58, 96
sustaining and growing wealth, 55–56, 58–60
tax collection, court rulings on, 57
Seneca Nation of Indians Economic Development Company (SNIEDC), 47–48, 61
Seneca Nation schools
deterioration of, 99
discipline in, 99, 103
educational ventures, 93–94
financial literacy program, 50–51
funding, 91, 96–97
funding per student, 91
leadership, 99, 103
parents and, 91–93, 94, 97, 99
private school tuition subsidies, 92
teachers, lack of, 99, 103
tribal politics, 101
violence in, 91
Seneca Nation students
academic achievement, 91
college guidance for, 91–92
high school attainment lump sum payment, 49
life skills preparedness, 50–51, 93, 98–100
preparedness for higher education, 99–101
sex offenders, 152
Shakopee Mdewakanton tribe, 51–52
Shear, Sarah, x
Shuswap Nation, 22, 39–44
Simpcw band, 39–44
Sioux reservation, 65
Small, Ivan, 3, 4, 6–7, 17, 20, 22, 117–118
small business, funding, 19
Snyder, Dan, 169–171
Snyder Act (1921), 21
the soft bigotry of low expectations, 175
Soto, Hernando de, 15
South Dakota, laws against charter schools, 137
South Dakota American Indians, 84
Sovereign Nations or Reservations? (Anderson), 8
sovereignty, 65–67, 181
Spirit Lake reservation, 152–157
Standing Rock reservation, 65
statehood for Indian nations, 181
Stewart, Conrad, 4–5, 18–20, 87
students. See also children
accountability, 84, 106, 112–113, 117, 133–134, 153
achievement, standards for, 174
attitudes of, 109–110, 112, 133
boarding facilities for, 106, 119
college preparedness, 100–101, 134, 183
demonstrating possibilities to, 117, 136
desires for, 138
life skills preparedness, 87, 93, 98–100, 134
obligations to, 138
safety of, 82–83, 85, 88, 90–91, 106, 117, 139
scholarships, 139
spending on, ix, 87–88, 91
success, tribal leaders interest in, 119–120
transportation to school, 119
students, post-secondary
return post-graduation, 119
return pre-graduation, 92–93
spending per, 88–89
support for, 119
suicide
boys (10–14), viii
Kamloops developer, pressure on, 25
men (15–24) vs. national average, viii
rates under age 35, 169
removal schools and, 151
Sullivan, Thomas, 155, 160
Swan, Walt, 138
Syilx Nation, 41
teachers
educated off-reservation, 128–129
housing, on reservation, 128, 138
math/science summer schools, 108–110
Native American, availability of, 127–128
open positions for, 99, 103, 132–133
subject certified, availability of, 128
teachers, Teach for America
acceptance of, off-reservation, 132
goals of, 135
opposition to/suspicion of, 125–138, 180, 183
teacher training programs, 128
Teach for America, 125–138, 180, 183
Thomas, Clarence, 147
Tilus, Michael R., 154–155, 160
Time Bomb (Bland), 35
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 184–185
tourist industry, 39–40. See also casinos
Tovar, Perscilla, 109–110
tragedy of the commons, 13
treaties
modification or termination, consent required for, 21
number signed (1777–1871), 8
tribal colleges, 88–90
tribal courts
constitutional standards, adherence to, 163–168
criminal prosecution of non-Indians, 160
>
discrimination by gender, 164
disproportionately harsher punishments, 163–164
power over Indian children, 160, 163
tribal government
corruption in, 22, 65–66
family politics influence on, 40, 133–134
reform demands vs. financial demands, 180
tribal government, power of federal funds increasing, 179
over Indian children, 145–148, 160, 163
school accountability conflict, 140–141
sovereignty and, 66
tribal leaders, education and
college educations, opposition to, 135
family politics, 133–134
quality of, power over, 101
reform, opposition to, 137, 141, 183
student success, interest in, 119–120
TFA teachers, opposition to/suspicion of, 125–138, 180, 183
trust authority, BIA
energy leases and, 13
funds mismanagement, 13, 102, 179
homesite lease monitoring, 18
land ownership policies, 7
trust land policy, results of
agricultural productivity, 13
devaluation of property, 15, 24
on economic development, 12–13, 20, 24, 25, 27, 36, 39, 43–44
environmental degradation, 13
government rights over, 13
infantilization of members, 44, 66–67
property in disrepair, 6, 24, 75, 82
substandard housing, 6, 12–13, 23
Tsilhqot’in Nation v. British Columbia, 32
tuition, 92, 107, 119, 140
“Understanding Contextual Differences in American Indian Criminal Justice” (Long, et al.), 162
unemployment, 4, 20, 22, 82, 151, 169
University of North Carolina at Pembroke, 69, 73
Vancouver Island, 30–31
veterans, 3–4, 175
victimhood narrative, 96
violence
against children, 83. See also child abuse, physical and sexual
toward elders, 51
emergency assistance calls, 82
gang activity, viii, 82
policies resulting in, 4
reservations vs. national average, 7
in schools, 83–84, 91, 108
against women, viii, 160–163
Violence Against Women Act, 160, 162
Voegeli, William, 171
voting rights, 175
Washington Redskins trademark protections, 170–171
Whispering Pines/Clinton band, 36–38
white, being branded as, 129
white guilt, assuaging, xii
women, violence against, viii, 160–163
Woodrow, Susan, 18
work ethic, 70–71, 73, 76
Wounded Knee School District, 82–84, 86, 101, 125–127, 128
youth
coddling, 93
employment opportunities, 87, 89
entitlement attitude, 72–73, 76
life skills preparedness, 49–51, 65, 87, 93, 98–100, 134
mental health resources, 153
money management skills, 49–50