The New Trail of Tears
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identity as Americans, 176
military service, 3–4, 141, 175
19th century, Tocqueville’s observations on, 185
political power, 35
problems, causes and solutions, viii–ix, xiii, 8, 177–179, 181
religion practiced by, 119–120
South Dakota, 84
Anderson, Terry, 8, 13, 19, 182
annuities from casino revenues
addiction enabled by, 50
apathy resulting from, 51
college educations, funding, 52
entrepreneurial spirit and, 96
per member, Seneca Nation, 49
Seneca Nation economy, effect on, 96
victimhood narrative, 96
apathy, annuities and, 51
Apsaalooke Warrior Apartments, 3–4
Arnouse, Felix, 40–41
assimilation, 9, 28, 45, 120–123, 176–177
attachment theory, 157–158
Battle of the Little Bighorn, 3
Beard, Elisa Villanueva, 127
Beasley, Cheryl, 69, 99–101
Bell, Greg, 111
Benedict, Pope, 125
Beyond the Indian Act (Flanagan, Alcantara & Le Dressay), 32, 42
Bickel, Bruce, 135
Biddle, Rishawn, 102
black colleges, tribal colleges compared, 88–89
Bland, Doug, 35
Boldt decision (1974), 14
Bordewich, Fergus, xii, 10, 14, 17, 68
Brave Heart, Robert, 140
Brock, Kathy, 28–29
Brondel, John, 115
Brooks, Lucille, 47–48, 61, 94–95
Buck, Stuart, 100
buffalo, 8, 26
“Buffaloed: The Myth and Reality of Bison in America” (Schweikart), 26
Bullard, Wyatt, 110
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
employees per reservation Indian, ix
number of employees, 16
purpose, 8
residential schools of, 120–121
self-perpetuation, working toward, 182
subsidy program funding, ix
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) trust authority. See also trust land policy, results of
assumptions of incompetency underlying, 13, 15
funds mismanagement, 13, 102, 179
homesite lease monitoring, 18
land ownership policies, 7
Bureau of Indian Education (BIE), ix–x, 16, 101–102
Bush, George W., 175
Calder v. British Columbia, 28–29, 32
Canada. See also First Nations
First Nations land, responsibility toward, 29, 42–43
reserve system vs. US system, 28–29, 34–35
residential school system, 123–125
Canada and the United States: Differences That Count (Thomas & Biette, eds.), 28
Carlisle Indian Industrial School, 120–121
Carlson, Leonard, 15
casino revenues
annuities from, results of, 50–51, 96
benefits of, 50, 64–65, 96
decline in, 6, 53–54
political power and, 179
casinos
civil rights challenges, 165
Indian Gaming Regulation Act (IGRA), 58
non-Indian patrons/tourists, 6, 52–53
Catholic Church, residential school system, 120–125
Catholic Leadership Conference of Women Religious, 172
change agents
First Nations, 45–46
opposition to/criticism of, 136–137, 179–180
charter schools, 113–114, 136–137, 184
Chavis, Ben, 68, 70–71, 75, 98, 100, 105–115, 179
Cherokee Nation v. Hitchcock, 21
Chief Dull Knife College, 20, 88, 90
child abuse, physical and sexual
causes underlying, 150
rates of vs. national average, viii
at removal schools, 123–124, 150–151
reports on, suppression of, 155–157
at residential schools, 123–125
Spirit Lake reservation, 152–157
children. See also students
attachment theory, 157–158
behavior, standards for, 174
custody disputes, tribal government power over, 145–148
illegitimate, raised by grandparents, 76
legal protections for, 147, 166
mental health resources, 153
sexual behavior by, 152–157
white, kidnapped and assimilated, 45
child safety
emotional, power over, 145–148
in foster homes, 159
in ICWA-approved homes, 159
leaving the reservation for, 145–146, 167
removal from home for, 148–150
responsible adults available for, 159
in schools, 82–83, 85, 88, 90–91, 106, 117, 139
sex offenders on reservations, 152
social services oversights, 159–160
tribal courts politics/power over, 160, 163
Christian Alliance for Indian Child Welfare, 145–146
Christian religion, 119–120
Church of the Holy Rosary, 139–140
citizenship, 11, 16
Civil War, 40 acres and a mule policy post-, 11
Clinton/Whispering Pines band, 36–38
Coalition for the Protection of Indian Children and Families, 148
colonization of Native Americans, 120–123
Columbus Day, 172
Common Core standards, 93, 138
Cook, Robert, 127
Coulson, Andrew, 107
Crawford, Deana, 38
Crazy Horse School, 131–132
Crazy Like a Fox (Chavis), 70
crime, viii, 7, 182–183
Crow Agency, 3
Crowe, Jody Allen, 158
Crow reservation, 178
Crow tribe
dependence on public funds, 21–22
employment opportunities, 87
energy reserves, development of, 19
homelessness, rates of, 5
home ownership, 4–5
HUD debt, 4–5
Resolution of the Crow Tribal Legislature to Honor God for His Great Blessings upon the Crow Tribe and to Proclaim Jesus Christ as Lord of the Crow Indian Reservation, 120
schools, 87–88. See also Saint Labre Catholic school
unemployment rate, 4
veteran housing, 3–4
youth, employment preparedness, 87
cultural heritage
erasing, removal schools purpose for, 120–123
historically, mythology of, 14, 25–27, 41–42
cultural heritage, retaining
art gallery, 138
Church of the Holy Rosary, incorporated into, 139–140
community programs, 115
museums and research centers, 175, 177
native language curriculums, 138, 177
Cuomo, Andrew, 53–54
Curran, Jim, 132–133, 136
cycle of dysfunctional parenting, 152–154, 159
Dakota War of 1862, 173
Dawes, Henry, 10, 14–15
Dawes Act (1887) (General Allotment Act), 10–11, 16–17
dead capital, land as, 15
Department of Education (DOE) spending on BIE schools, x
dependence, culture of
abandoning individual responsibility, 38–39
annuities creating a, 50–51, 96
changing, possibility of, 44–45
creating a, 179
entitlement attitude accompanying, 48, 72–73, 76
First Nations, 38–39, 44–45
giving in to, 50, 69
Doctrine of Discovery, 172
Douglas, James, 30–31
Douglas Treaties, 30–31
Dropout Nation (Biddle), 102
drug use, 7, 51, 151
Eastern Sioux, Dak
ota War of 1862, 173
economic development. See also First Nations economic development; specific bands
consultation accommodation framework, 42–43
federal constraints on, 20, 25, 27, 36, 39, 43–44
First Nations, 24–25, 28, 39–44
funding, 21–22, 73
tribal restrictions on, 20
trust land policy effect on, 12–13, 20, 24, 25, 27, 36, 39, 43–44
economy, cash or barter, 37
education. See also schools; teachers
to civilize, historically, 10
Common Core standards, 93, 138
funding, 36, 50, 84
Indian School Equalization Program, 102
Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, 167
to leave the reservation, 36
education, post-secondary
attendance rates, 116–117, 139, 141
First Nations, 39
funding, 36, 52, 117
graduation rates, 88, 134
grants to colleges awarding Indian PhDs, 173
readiness for, 88, 91–92, 130, 134, 135
spending per degree, 89
tribal colleges, 88–90
education, post-secondary students
return post-graduation, 119
return pre-graduation, 92–93
spending per, 88–89
support for, 119
education reform
charter school models for, 184
family and, 103
parents rejection of, 94, 97
possibility of, 103–104, 183–184
tribal leaders opposition to, 137, 141, 183
the elderly
safety nets for, 96
violence toward, 51
Elleby, Nadina, 114–115
Empire of the Summer Moon (Gwynne), 45
employment opportunities
casino jobs, 63–64
First Nations, 43
government positions, 64
return to the reservation for, 55, 119, 127, 130–131
schools, 86
skills preparedness, 65, 87, 93, 98–100, 134
tribal government, control over, 63–64
tribal government control over, 89, 134
types of, 20–21
energy reserves, development of, 13, 19
entitlement, attitude of, 48, 72–73, 76
entrepreneurial spirit, 96
Escalanti, Kenrick, 170
Evans, Noel, 110
family, disintegration of the, 76, 150, 152–154, 159
Fatal Link (Crowe), 158
fathers, funds replacing, 150
fetal alcohol syndrome, 158–159
Fiddler, Mark, 149, 152, 157–158
Fiedler, Maureen, 172
Fire Thunder, Cecilia, 101, 128, 137–138, 140
First Nations
agreement among, 36
autonomy, political and economic, 27–28
characterizations of, 27, 44
civil unrest, possibility of, 35–36
compensation for residential schools, 124–125
dependence, culture of, 38–39, 44–45
domestic violence, 45
drug abuse, 45
educational attainment, 39, 45
employment opportunities, 43
leaders for change, 45–46
leadership, 30
literature on, 25
membership, federal determination of, 28
parity, discrepancies in, 32–33
percent of population, 35
poverty, 45
power of, 28, 35
residential schools, 123–125
treaties, 30–32
whites and, Lebourdais on, 41–42
First Nations economic development band-owned companies, 39–40
consultation accommodation framework, 42–43
federal constraints on, 39, 43–44
property taxes, 28, 39
regulatory delays, 25
First Nations Property Ownership Act, 25, 28, 32, 36, 41, 180, 181
First Nations property rights
Aboriginal title, 32–33
absence of, results from, 23–25
federal controls, 33
historically, 27, 30–31, 41–42
inheritability of, 38
land development, government’s duty to consult with on, 42–44
land for compensation, 31–32
land titles, constitutional section on, 29
transferability of, 38
of women, 27
fishing rights, 14
Flanagan, Tom, 32, 42
Flood, Joe, 151
food insecurity, 83
Fort Yuma Indian reservation, 169–171
Foxwoods Casino, 177
Foxwoods Resort, 53
freedmen, property ownership, 11
gang activity, viii, 82
Gates Millennium Scholarship, 139
GEAR UP, 137, 141–142
Gibbs, Gloria, 110
Gill, Jeffrey, 56, 91
Gover, Kevin, 175
government subsidies, results of dependence on
apathy, 50
culture of dependence, 69, 179
economic, 21–22
entitlement attitude, 48, 72–73, 76
family disintegration, 150
individual responsibility, abandonment of, 38–39
on Kamloops band, 38–39
Grand Governing Council of the American Indian Movement, 172
Greene, Jay, 127
Guerrero, Kimberly Norris, 160
Gwynne, S. C., 45
Hagan, Kay, 74
Hamilton, Ted, 120–122
Hammonds, Ronald, 75–76, 97–98, 111
Hammonds, Rosie, 72
Hanson, Paul, 108
Harris, Kurri, 117
health care, ix, 21–22, 50, 74–75, 153
Healthy Brains for Children, 158
heroin use, 151
Hinson, Jesse, 110, 113
historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), 88–89
Holman, Anaiya, 105, 110
Holy Rosary Mission school (Red Cloud). See Red Cloud (Holy Rosary Mission school)
homelessness, rates of, 5
home ownership, 4–5, 17–19, 23–24, 38
homesite leases, 18
homicides, perpetrators of, 162
horses, 8
housing
casino revenue and, 50
subsidy program funding, ix–x
substandard, trust land policy and, 6, 12–13, 23
veterans, 3–4
HUD (Housing and Urban Development), 4–5
identity, American Indians, 176
Incomplete, Illiberal, and Expensive (Milke), 32
independence, 16
Indian Act (1876), 33, 38, 39
Indian Act (1876) Kamloops Amendment, 28
Indian agents, 28, 39, 113–114
Indian Child Welfare Act, 145–150, 158, 166, 183
Indian Civil Rights Act, 163–164
Indian Gaming Regulation Act (IGRA), 58
Indian Health Service, funding, ix
Indian mascots, 170–171
Indian nations, number of, xii
Indian race. See also American Indians; First Nations
assumptions about, 13–15
civilizing, possibility of, 10
inferiority, theories on, 9
Indian Reorganization Act (1934) (Indian New Deal), 12, 16–17
Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land (Carlson), 15
Indian School Equalization Program, 102
Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, 167
Indian territories, upstate NY, 90
Indigenous Peoples’ Day, 172
industrial schools, 120–121
infants
drug-addicted, 145–146
prenatal exposure to alcohol, 158–159
Inuit children, r
eserve schools for, 123
Israel, Seneca Nation compared, 62
Jimerson, Christina, 91–92
John, Michael, 57
John, Michael A., 62–63
Johnson, Ronald, 53
Jordan, Michael, 67
Jules, Manny, 22–23, 25–27, 32, 33–34, 44–46, 123–124, 180, 181
Kamloops (city), 23–24
Kamloops Amendment, 27
Kamloops band
children in residential schools, 123–124
dependence on public funds, 38–39, 44–45
discrimination against, 124
economic development, hindrances to, 24, 27
mortgage payments, 17–18
property rights, 22–23
self-sufficiency, desire for, 27
trust land policy, results of, 24, 44
wealth of, 24
Kamloops reservation
land leased to developers, 24–25
land value vs. Kamloops (city), 24
property taxes, 24
Kennedy, John F., 61
Killing the White Man’s Indian (Bordewich), xii, 10
Kimelberg, David, 55–56, 58–61, 64, 179
Kimelberg, Michael, 54–56, 60, 64
Kinzua Dam, 61
Kline, John, x
Koppisch, John, 12–13
Labre, Benedict Joseph, St., 115
Lakota, 101, 122–123, 139–140
Lame Deer, MT, 6–7, 87–88, 117–118
land-spiritual values relation, x–xi, 20
Laurier, Wilfrid, 41–42
law enforcement, 7, 182
Leadership Enterprise for a Diverse America (LEDA), 130
Lebourdais, Ed, 37, 41
Lebourdais, Mike, 36–39
Le Dressay, André, 24–25, 32, 33, 42
Leonard, Clay, 139
life skills preparedness, 50–51, 65, 87, 93, 98–100, 134
Littlebear, Richard, 88, 119–120
Little Owl, Karl, 3, 87, 119
Little Shuswap band, 40
Little Wound High School, 131
Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 21
Long, Larry, 162, 164
Lowry, Lucy, 69, 98–99
Lueck, Dean, 13
Lumbee Indians
economic development, funding, 73
education, 69–70, 71–72, 73, 178
independence from federal government, 69
land ownership, 69–70
public assistance, 74
success without a reservation, 67–71
MacDonald, Peter, 65–66
MacShane, Denis, 156–157
Marquez, Deron, 50
Mashantucket Pequot tribe, 53
Matthew, Keith, 39–40, 42–44
Maynor, Maxie, 114
McCaskill, Claire, 58–59
McCrory, Pat, 113
McLachlin, Beverly, 32
McMahon, E. J., 53
Menke, Joshua, 131–132, 134–135
mental health resources, 153
methamphetamine use, 7
Métis children, reserve schools for, 123
Mid-Central Educational Cooperative, 141–142