by Ray Takeyh
Israel. See also Arab-Israeli peace process
Ahmadinejad presidency and, 211–15
Iran-Contra affair and, 104–5, 107
Iranian foreign policy and, 60, 70–71, 81, 82
Iranian nuclear program and, 141–42
Iranian opposition to, 189–91, 213–15, 224–26
Iraq and, 166
Khatami presidency and, 207–11, 214–15
neoconservative movement and, 126
nuclear weapons and, 153, 155, 157
Pahlavi monarchy and, 191–95
relations with Iran and, 195–202
terrorism against, 128, 202–7
Jafari, Ibrahim al-, 179
Jalaiapour, Hamid Reza, 54
Jannati, Ahmad, 34, 42, 119, 150
Jewish community, of Iran, 197–98, 199
Jomhuri-ye Islami (newspaper), 75, 145, 147–48, 149
Jordan, 72, 178, 181, 200
Jordan, Hamilton, 83
judiciary, conservative faction and, 34
justice, revolutionary ideology and, 12
Kadivar, Mohsen, 48–49
Karbaschi, Gholam-Hussein, 56
Kargozaran-e Sazandegi. See Servants of Construction Party
Karine-A crisis, 128, 130
Karrubi, Mehdi, 49
Karzai, Hamid, 123
Kashani, Abdolqasem, 91, 192–93
Kashf-e Asrar (Khomeini), 13, 18
Keyhan (newspaper), 150
Khalilzad, Zalmay, 129
Khamenei, Ali
anti-Western ideology and, 53, 110, 113
Bush administration and, 129
Clinton administration and, 115
conservative faction and, 31–32, 33–39, 132
cultural restrictions and, 42
foreign policy and, 5, 68–69, 112
Iran-Iraq War and, 174
Israel and, 198, 211, 213
Khomeini and, 23
nuclear program and, 147, 151, 153–54
in post–September 11 period, 121–22, 134
reformist faction and, 52
as Supreme Leader, 33, 34
Khan, Abdul Qadeer, 138
Kharrazi, Kamal, 111, 122, 144, 211
Khatami, Muhammad
Bush administration and, 129
economy and, 121
Iranian foreign policy and, 68–69, 75, 207–11, 214–15
nuclear program and, 137
political factions and, 29
reformist faction and, 3, 32, 44–45, 50–51
U.S. foreign policy and, 108, 110–16, 123
Khatami, Muhammad Reza, 56, 152
Khobar Towers bombing, 67
Khomeini, Ruhollah
2005 election and, 9–10
about, 10–20
consolidation of theocratic government and, 20–30, 217–18
death of, 31, 65–66
expulsion from Iran, 17
foreign policy and, 4–5, 59, 63–64, 73
Iran-Contra affair and, 108, 109
Iran-Iraq War and, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176
Iraq and, 166–67, 168
nuclear weapons and, 137
opposition to Israel by, 193–94, 196
theocracy and, 21–23, 25
totalitarianism and, 47–48
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 24–25, 96–97, 97–98, 100–101
Khorasani, Muhammad, 192
Khuzestan, 164, 166
Kim Jong Il, 145
Kristol, William, 127
Kurdish people
in Iran, 183, 225
in Iraq, 165, 166, 175, 181–82, 183–84
Kuwait, 64, 65, 66, 67
labor unions, 51
Lake, Anthony, 113
Larijani, Ali, 70, 132, 213
Larijani, Muhammad Javad, 121, 153, 180
Lebanon, 67, 105–6, 185, 200, 201. See also Hezbollah
leftist politics, 13, 14, 16, 19–20, 22, 26
Lewis, Bernard, 127
Libby, I. Lewis “Scooter,” 126
liberalism, suppression of, 29
linkage, U.S. policy of, 220–21, 222–23
Mahdi, Adel Abdul, 179
Mar’ashi-Najafi, Shahabeddin, 27
martyrdom, 143
Marxism, 18, 22
McFarlane, Robert “Bud,” 106, 107, 108
media. See also newspapers, Iranian
conservative faction and, 36, 54–55
Iranian nuclear program and, 145
Mossadeq coup and, 86
propaganda and, 28
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 99
MEK. See Mojahedin-e Khalq (MEK)
middle class, 22, 45, 56–57
Middle East. See also Arab East region
Persian Gulf region
anticolonial movements and, 13–14
the Cold War and, 164
Iranian foreign policy and, 18–19, 59–82, 111
Iraq and, 178, 181
Israel and, 104–5, 206–7
U.S. foreign policy in, 118
militant Islam. See Islamism
military. See armed forces
Mirdamadi, Mohsen, 153, 209
missiles, Iraqi, 173
moderates, Iranian, 106, 107–8, 108–9. See also pragmatists’ faction
modernization, Iranian monarchy and, 11
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah
Egypt and, 73
Israel and, 191, 193
Kurdish people and, 166, 181–82
Mossadeq coup and, 92
nuclear program and, 136–37
oil industry and, 14, 87
revolutionary ideology and, 16, 17
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 24
Mohebian, Amir, 155
Mojahedin-e Khalq (MEK), 22, 26, 28
monarchies, in the Persian Gulf region, 64, 162, 163, 164, 186
monarchy, Iranian. See also Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah
Iraq and, 162, 163, 164–65, 186
Israel and, 195–202
modernization and, 11
Mossadeq coup and, 93–94
restoration of, 92–93
Shiite clergy and, 13
Montazeri, Ali Hussein, 33, 48
mosques, political involvement of, 23. See also clergy
Mossadeq, Muhammad, 84, 85, 87–88, 89–90, 91–93
Mossadeq coup, 84, 85–95, 96, 114, 116
motivations
of Iran, 135, 140–46, 159, 171–72, 177–78, 205, 223
of Iraq, 169
of United States, 146
Mubarak, Hosni, 74, 75
multilateral talks, Iranian nuclear program and, 159–60
Musavi-Khoeniha, Muhammad, 25
Musavi-Lari, Abdulvand, 45–46
Musharraf, Pervez, 144
Muslim Brotherhood, 74, 202
Mussavi, Mir Hussein, 151
Nabavi, Behzad, 101, 120
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 164
Nasseri, Sirius, 198
Nateq-Nuri, Ali Akbar, 50
National Front, 22, 28, 87, 90–91, 93
national interest calculations. See pragmatism, in international affairs
nationalism
clergy and, 13–14, 91
the Cold War and, 92
Iranian foreign policy and, 62, 81–82
Iraq and, 164
Muhammad Mossadeq and, 88
nuclear program and, 139, 140, 149, 154–55, 157–58
oil industry and, 86, 87
opposition to Israel and, 194
revolutionary ideology and, 11, 16, 20
sense of history and, 61–62
nationalization crisis, 88–90
national security. See also foreign policy
decision-making process and, 150–51
international community and, 148–49, 158–60
nuclear weapons and, 140–41, 145–46
post-Hussein Iraq and, 183
neoconservative movement, in the U.S., 125–28
newspapers
Middle Eastern, 181
Nicaragua, 85, 104, 107
9/11 Commission Report, 222
Nixon Doctrine, 143, 165
nonelected institutions, 34, 49, 115, 129. See also democracy
normalization of relations with the United States, 117–18, 121. See also diplomatic ties
North, Oliver, 107
Northern Alliance, 122–23
North Korea, 2, 145, 153, 160
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 137, 139, 149, 151–52, 155, 157
nuclear power plants, 136, 160
nuclear program, Iranian, 135–60
possible military strikes against, 184–85
Revolutionary Guards and, 38
Russia and, 78, 79
U.S. foreign policy and, 6–7, 221, 222–23
nuclear weapons, 81, 105, 139–40, 140–46, 157
Nuri, Abdollah, 45–46, 208–9
oil industry
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) and, 86, 87
economic issues and, 121
Iran-Iraq War and, 173
nationalization crisis, 88–90
Persian Gulf region and, 60, 63, 187
revenues from, 14
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 98
Operation Ajax, 92–93
Operation Eagle Claw, 100
Organization of the Islamic Conference, 68
Oslo peace process. See Arab-Israeli peace process
“outer ring” doctrine, 192, 201
Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza. See Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah
Pakistan, 80–81
Iranian nuclear program and, 138
Iranian relations with, 144
nuclear weapons and, 140, 141, 150, 157, 159
Palestine Liberation Organization, 202
Palestinian people
Arab-Israeli peace process and, 210, 211, 212, 213
existence of Israel and, 197
Iranian support for, 193–94
Palestinian resistance groups, 74, 128, 202–4, 211
pan-Arabist ideology, 162, 164, 165, 166, 182
Parliament, 21, 24, 25
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, 181
Perle, Richard, 127
Persian dynasties, 61
Persian Gulf region
Iranian foreign policy and, 60, 63–70, 81, 225
Iranian nuclear program and, 142–44, 152–53
Iran-Iraq relations and, 186–87
regional ambitions in, 185
Persian nationalism. See nationalism
philanthropy, 38
pluralism. See democracy
plutonium enrichment facilities, 138
Poindexter, John, 107
political demonstrations
by Iranian students, 34, 95, 156
in the Persian Gulf region, 64
political factions. See factions, within Iranian government
political ingenuity, of Khomeini, 11
political involvement, Islam and, 12–13, 13–14, 21–22
political parties, 195–99
Abadgaran, 35
al-Dawa Party, 65, 168, 178, 179
Ba’ath Party, 71, 162, 165, 166, 176
Hezbollah as, 205–6
Islamic Republican Party (IRP), 25
Mojahedin-e Khalq (MEK), 22
National Front, 22
opposition to theocracy by, 55
Servants of Construction Party, 40
terror tactics, against opposition parties, 27–28
Tudeh Party, 22, 77, 92
political strategy, opposition to Israel and, 196, 199–202
political suppression, of reform movement, 52
pragmatism, in international affairs, 4, 5, 6, 76, 81, 82. See also foreign policy
pragmatists’ faction, 29, 39–44
future of, 55, 56
Iran-Contra affair and, 106, 107–8, 109, 110
nuclear program and, 151–53
Persian Gulf region and, 66–67
in post–September 11 period, 119, 120–21, 131, 132, 134
preemption, doctrine of, 118–19, 125
presidency, 26–27, 33, 39–40, 50. See also Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud
Khatami, Muhammad
Rafsanjani, Akbar Hashemi
profit-sharing agreements, oil industry and, 86, 88
property rights, 37, 42, 90
propaganda, 28, 175–76
Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 198
provisional government, of Iran, 22, 23, 97
public opinion, Iranian
Ali Khamenei and, 68–69
democratic institutions and, 56–57
expectations and, 54–55
nuclear program and, 85, 154–58
reformist faction and, 51–52
of the United States, 129–30
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 101
public opinion, U.S.
of Iran, 85
of Iraq War, 185
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 84, 94–95, 99, 101, 102
Putin, Vladimir, 138
Qalibaf, Muhammad, 133
Qasim, Abdul-Karim, 164
Qom, uprising in, 16, 17
quietist tradition, of clergy, 12, 91
Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 123
Rafsanjani, Akbar Hashemi
Ali al-Sistani and, 180
Iran-Contra affair and, 106, 109, 110
Iran-Iraq War and, 26, 170, 173, 175
Israel and, 141, 196
Khomeini and, 23
nuclear program and, 137, 139, 144, 151, 152, 154–55
Persian Gulf region and, 66
political factions and, 5, 9, 32, 39–41, 55
in post-September 11 period, 120, 121
presidency of, 42, 43–44
weapons of mass destruction and, 143
Reagan, Ronald, 101, 106
Reagan administration, 103–4, 137. See also Iran-Contra affair
reformist faction, 9, 29, 44–54
foreign policy and, 68–69, 75, 131
future of, 55, 56
Israel and, 207–11
totalitarianism and, 3
“regime change,” U.S. foreign policy and, 129, 145, 220, 221
regional ambitions, of Iran, 18–19, 61–62, 63–64, 185, 205, 219
religion. See Islam; theocracy
religious foundations (bonyads), 38
Resalat (newspaper), 148
rescue operations, U.S. Embassy crisis and, 100
Revolutionary Guards
economic power of, 38
Iranian nuclear program and, 156, 157
Iraq and, 174, 179
Khomeini and, 25
political factions and, 34, 52
United States armed forces and, 184–85
revolutionary ideology
democracy and, 14–15
foreign policy and, 4–5, 6, 59–60, 62–63, 111, 167, 219
Iran-Iraq War and, 169–70
Iraq and, 162, 163, 186
Islam and, 17, 21–22
Israel and, 190, 195, 195–99, 209
of Khomeini, 10, 12, 19–20
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and, 9
regional ambitions and, 18–19, 65, 205
young conservatives and, 132
Rezai, Mohsen, 143
Rice, Condoleezza, 124, 125, 221
Roosevelt, Kermit, 92
Rowhani, Hassan, 115, 151
Rumsfeld, Donald, 125
Russia. See also Soviet Union
influence on Iran, 61
Iranian foreign policy and, 5, 60, 76, 77, 78–79, 82
Iranian nuclear program and, 137–38, 158
young conservatives and, 132–33
Sadat, Anwar al-, 73, 104–5
Sadr, Moqtada al-, 179–80, 224
Safavi, Yahya Rahim, 52, 157, 184–85
Salam, Hadi, 122
Salehi, Ali Akbar, 139, 152
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 14
> Saudi Arabia
Iranian foreign policy and, 60, 64, 165, 213–14
Iraq and, 72, 178, 181
Khatami presidency and, 112
Khomeini and, 19
political demonstrations in, 64
terrorism in, 65, 225
U.S. military bases in, 67
SAVAK (secret police), 194
scientific establishment, Iranian, 156–57
Second Republic, 27–28
secularism
cultural restrictions and, 48
Iranian revolution (1979) and, 21, 22–23
in Iraq, 167, 176
Muhammad Mossadeq and, 91
suppression of, 29, 93–94
Syria and, 71–72
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 99
self-importance, Iranian sense of, 91–92
self-reliance, nuclear, 138–39
September 11 attacks, 53, 116, 117. See also foreign policy: in post–September 11 period
Servants of Construction Party, 40
Shah, the. See Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah
Shahroudi, Mahmoud Hashemi, 34, 119, 120
Shariati, Ali, 14
Shariatmadari, Ayatollah Kazem, 22, 27
Sharq (newspaper), 181, 182
Shatt al-Arab waterway, 164, 166, 168
“Shiite Crescent,” 178, 181
Shiite Islam
in Afghanistan, 79, 80
in Arab East region, 76
foreign policy and, 81
historical oppression of, 62
in Iraq, 63, 72, 162, 165, 168, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181
Islamic Jihad and, 203
in Lebanon, 201, 204
in Pakistan, 144
in the Persian Gulf region, 64–65
political factions and, 29–30
political involvement and, 12–13, 27, 48, 180
revolutionary ideology and, 21–22
U.S. Embassy crisis and, 100
Shirazi, Mohiyeddine Haeri, 53
Sistani, Ali al-, 180
social classes, 19–20, 37. See also middle class
“soft power,” in Iraq, 224
Soroush, Abdol Karim, 46–48
sovereignty, 150, 156
Soviet Union, 62, 76, 77–78, 79, 165. See also Russia
State of the Union addresses, U.S., 1, 118, 128–29
state-sponsored terrorism. See terrorism
students
demonstrations by, 34, 95, 156
nuclear program and, 155–56
reformist faction and, 45
subsidies, 37–38, 43
suicide bombings, Hezbollah and, 204
Sunni Islam. See also Shiite Islam
in Afghanistan, 79, 80
allies of Iran and, 181
Iran-Iraq War and, 175–76
in Iraq, 72, 162, 163, 176, 182
Islamic Jihad and, 203
revolutionary ideology and, 62
Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI), 178–79
Supreme Leader. See also Khamenei, Ali
Khomeini, Ruhollah
constitution of the Islamic Republic and, 55, 56, 99
role of, 41, 49, 51
Supreme National Security Council, 70
Syria