The Dramaturgy of Senecan Tragedy

by Thomas; Kohn

  The Chorus uses a variety of meters for its songs.75 Anapests are a particular favorite,76 appearing at least once and usually more in each of the tragedies. In fact, this meter is used in the first choral passage in six of the plays: the Hercules, the Troades, the Phaedra,77 the Oedipus, and the Agamemnon;78 only the Medea and the Thyestes do not feature it. This meter in Greek is, according to Rosenmeyer, Ostwald, and Halporn, “firm and regular, suitable for the musical setting of marches and processionals.”79 It seems, then, that Seneca liked to use anapests for the entrance of his Choruses. To be sure, some of these songs are not exclusively anapestic. But the presence of this meter would be natural and appropriate and would make the audience comfortable. Further, the final song in the Hercules Furens (1054–1137), at the end of which the Chorus exits, is also in anapests; and so this meter again signals movement offstage. And the first Chorus in the Agamemnon sings in anapests just before its exit (310–87). This is not to imply that all instances of anapests signify a choral entrance or exit, or that all exit songs must contain anapests. But it is a technique that Seneca often employs.

  The choral passages must have been sung, or at least chanted, and they would have been accompanied by some kind of movement and music. Only two plays, the Oedipus and the Agamemnon, include lengthy passages of canticum polymetrum, although the Medea and the Phaedra have some fairly exotic combinations. In all of the dramas except for the Troades and the Thyestes, at least one song has a change of meter. Presumably, this would signal a change in the Chorus’ dance. Vitruvius tells us that the Roman Chorus, as opposed to the Greek, stayed on the stage and did not use the orchestra.80 And in fact, although the Chorus often remains onstage from its initial entrance until the end of the drama, there are exceptions and variations.81 Sutton argues strongly that once the Chorus has entered, it generally stays for the entire play.82 Davis, on the other hand, accepts that it may sometimes exit between odes. He uses four criteria to determine when the Chorus is present for an act: if someone announces its entrance or previous exit; if it participates in the dialogue; if there is some connection between an act and the ensuing song; and finally, when the previous criteria are inconclusive, “dramatic appropriateness.”83 I take a middle position, and accept Davis’ first two criteria. But in their absence, I join Sutton in assuming that the Chorus remains unless there is a good dramatic reason for it to leave. For example, after the second song, the Chorus of the Hercules Furens seems to get depressed over the sufferings of Hercules and exits, to reenter just before its third song when Theseus announces its arrival (827–29), presumably elated because they have encountered Hercules on his way to kill Lycus.84 On the other hand, there is no good reason for the Chorus to exit following the parodos of the Thyestes, aside from Davis’ subjective belief that the second song shows no familiarity with Atreus’ plans, formulated in act 2;85 Goffman, on the contrary, notes the convention of theater: “out-of-frame activity” can occur, in which “any aside or collusion…not meant for oneself is not to be perceived to occur no matter how broad the act is.”86 That is, if the playwright does not want the onstage Chorus to hear what other onstage characters are saying, it will not. Admittedly, my judgments can be just as subjective as Davis'; but it seems to me that the burden of proof is on absence: the reader should assume that the Chorus is present, unless there is persuasive argument that it is not.

  Very often, the Chorus, upon concluding its song, simply retires to the scaenae frons in order to observe the ensuing action or meditate on the previous. But sometimes, it will announce the arrival of a character. This happens at the end of all four choral songs in the Phaedra, as it remarks upon the entrance of the Nurse at 358–59, of Theseus at 824–34,87 of the Messenger at 989–90, and of Phaedra at 1154–55. The Chorus also announces the entrance of Creon at Oedipus 202–5, of Eurybates at Agamemnon 388–91, and of Agamemnon himself at Agamemnon 778–81. In all of these instances, regardless of the meter of the song, the entrance announcement is in trimeter. But when the Chorus remarks on the arrival of Hecuba at Troades 858–60, it continues the use of anapests. Similarly, the announcement of the Messenger's entrance at Oedipus 911–14 stays in glyconics, and that of Oedipus at 995–97 in anapests.88 Finally, at Hercules Furens 202–4, when the Chorus tells of the arrival of Megara and Amphitryo, the first two lines continue the anapests from the song, while the last changes to trimeter.

  Only occasionally does a character comment upon the Chorus. Clytemnestra, at Agamemnon 586–88, announces the entrance of a Chorus of Trojan women. More remarkably, at Hercules Furens 827–29, Theseus states that the Chorus will sing a song in praise of Hercules, and at Oedipus 401–2, Tiresias commands the Chorus to fill the time while he performs the necromancy with a hymn in honor of Bacchus. It is uncommon in tragedy, both Greek and Roman, for someone to announce that while he does something else, a band of people will perform a song. The only other extant example is in Euripides, Phoenician Women 196 ff. But it is a fairly frequent element in Greek New Comedy.89

  At least once in each play, and usually only once, the Chorus, or possibly a coryphaeus as in Greek tragedy, speaks in trimeter within an episode.90 We have already noted that the Chorus is an active participant with Cassandra in the fourth act of the Agamemnon. In the Hercules Furens, it prevents Amphitryo from committing suicide just before Hercules enters after killing his wife and children (1031–34). In the Troades, it asks the newly arrived Talthybius why the departure of the Achaean fleet has been delayed (166–67). It engages in dialogue with the Messenger in the Medea, asking questions about the fire that consumed Creusa and her father (879–90, with the Chorus speaking at 881a, 882b, 884b, and 887b). Similarly, in the Thyestes, the Chorus frequently interrupts the Messenger with queries about the slaughter of the sons of Thyestes (623–788; the Chorus speaks at 626b, 633, 638b-40, 690b, 716b, 719, 730–1, 743b, 745b-46a, 747b-48). The Chorus speaks twice in act 5 of the Oedipus, commenting first on the arrival of Jocasta, and then on her onstage suicide (1004–9 and 1040–41). The Phaedra is remarkable for having the Chorus speak in two different episodes. In act 2, it tells Phaedra to set aside her grief (404–5), and in act 5, it counsels Theseus to turn away from laments and toward burying Hippolytus (1244–45). The Chorus, then, is closely integrated into the structure of Senecan drama and is clearly an important element in Seneca's dramaturgical vision.

  It should be clear by now that whoever our playwright might have been, for whatever purpose he might have composed the tragedies, and whatever performance modes and venues he might have intended, Seneca had a dramatic vision, an art of drama, which he pursued in his tragedies. He took advantage of the stage of his time, letting characters enter and exit from the center doors as well as the side wings. He used such devices as the machina, the exostra, and a trap door, not to excess, but when appropriate. Likewise, he did not go overboard in the use of significant props, but specifically mentioned a few when it contributed to the play. He also took full advantage of the rule of three actors that he inherited from his Greek predecessors, not to level the competitive playing field or to keep the size of the theatrical company to a minimum, but to draw connections between the characters in his plays. His Choruses were integrally connected with the dramatic structure. In short, as Sutton so admirably showed, the author of these dramas had a style of dramaturgy that he followed consistently, while allowing flexibility. We are now prepared to examine each of the genuine tragedies in some detail, showing how this dramaturgy plays out, and how keeping an eye attuned to this dramatic vision can help in the interpretation of what are, after all, the only complete extant examples of Roman tragedy.

  CHAPTER 2

  Oedipus

  Oedipus himself is onstage for almost the entire play, entering at line 1, and leaving the stage only twice before the end. His persona is so dominant and overwhelming that even when he is not physically present during act 5, the servant's report makes him seem to be there. Oedipus is the most demanding role of the drama. He is, therefore, the
only character assigned to one actor.

  A second actor is required to portray Jocasta, Creon, and the shepherd, Phorbas. It is certainly interesting that, in a drama where incest plays such a prominent role, brother and sister are given to the same actor. There is some scholarly disagreement concerning Phorbas. Weil, feeling that Jocasta's part was too small, assigns to her some lines in act 4 that the manuscripts give to the Old Corinthian.1 This requires her to stay onstage longer, and thus necessitates a fourth actor to portray the shepherd.2 Recent translations have gone even further in padding the queen's part.3 But Seneca is very meticulous in creating the persona of Jocasta. In her first two appearances, when she is acting as the wife of Oedipus, her part is kept to a minimum. She is a good Roman matron, performing her duty and supporting her husband, but doing nothing more. She does not hang around longer than necessary, but leaves as soon as she has delivered her required words, and neither her arrival nor her departure is marked. Once she is recognized as Oedipus’ mother, however, her behavior and dramatic treatment change. The Chorus announces her entrance and “exit” (i.e., her onstage suicide); she displays more emotion than in her previous appearances; and instead of taking her physical leave once she has said her piece, Jocasta kills herself, remaining in sight of the audience even after Oedipus has left and the play has ended. But in act 4, she is still his wife. And so, the manuscripts are correct in having her answer the king's questions, succinctly and fairly directly, and then exiting. Thus, the actor who plays Jocasta and Creon is available to portray Phorbas. In fact, the shepherd has much in common with Creon. Both men possess information that is vital if Oedipus is to solve the mystery of Laius’ death; but both are reluctant to tell what they know, ultimately needing to be threatened. Jocasta also tells her husband things about Laius’ murder that he needs to know. She seems to talk willingly, but her responses in act 4 sometimes rival the Delphic oracle for brevity and obscurity. It is, then, quite appropriate that these three characters all be played by the same actor.

  The third actor has Tiresias the Seer, the Old Corinthian, and the Messenger. Like the characters played by the second actor, these roles also bring important information. But they all come voluntarily. Creon states that Tiresias enters “in his own time, driven by Apollo” (in tempore ipso sorte Phoebea excitus, 288). Neither the Corinthian nor the Messenger says why they have come, but clearly no one has sent for them. On the contrary, Creon was sent to Delphi and ordered to observe the necromancy, and Phorbas was summoned. The third actor, then, gets the characters who appear on their own accord.

  One more role remains. When the blind seer, Tiresias, enters in act 2, he is led by his daughter, Manto, who not only guides her father, but also describes the details of the extispicium to both him and the audience. The text indicates that Oedipus is there, because he speaks both before and after the rite. And even though Creon is not heard from after the mantic pair enter, his presence is strongly suggested. Creon himself announces the entrance of the seers. Only two lines are spoken between his final words and Tiresias’ first, making a switch problematic. Further, Creon would undoubtedly exit into the center doors, while Tiresias and Manto enter from the wing. It is virtually impossible for the actor to leave the stage, change costumes and masks, and run to the proper entrance in two lines. Finally, at the end of the extispicium, Oedipus addresses him directly, using the second-person pronoun (te, Creo, 399), indicating that Creon is still present, and so confirms that this episode requires a fourth speaking actor to portray Manto.4

  In a somewhat unusual move for Seneca, the Chorus clearly identifies itself as consisting of Theban citizens (e.g., Cadmi generosa proles, 110, and stirpis invictae genus, 124). Further, they are worshippers of Bacchus, as lines 113–23 and the second choral song make clear, as well as intensely loyal to Oedipus.5

  Dramaturgical Issues

  ACT 1 (1–109)

  Action units: (1) Oedipus, in monologue, talks about the curse that drove him from Corinth and about the plague that is ravaging Thebes; he refers to kingship as a dubious good and is on the verge of running away. (2) Jocasta chastises Oedipus and snaps him out of his depression, saying he must face his responsibilities. (3) Oedipus, again in monologue, agrees, citing his previous accomplishment in solving the riddle of the Sphinx.

  Oedipus enters at line 1 from the center doors representing the palace at Thebes. His first words establish that it is dawn. He identifies himself at line 12 by referring to his supposed father, Polybus, the king of Corinth (parentis Polybi).6 Sutton has him come on alone, with Jocasta entering as she speaks her first words at line 81.7 This is possible. But since she directly responds to her husband's speech, it is more likely that she enters with Oedipus at the start of the play, and stands silently until she cannot bear it any longer. The less satisfying alternative, which must be accepted if Sutton's reading is followed, is that she has heard this kind of thing from him before, and so is able to respond to what she knows he must have just said, even if she does not know the exact words he has used. At line 14, Oedipus raises his hands and looks up while praying to the sky and the gods (caelum deosque testor). This behavior continues at line 71, when he prostrates himself before an onstage altar and stretches forth his hands in supplication (adfusus aris supplices tendo manus).8

  At lines 80–81, Oedipus ironically suggests that he might flee to his parents for comfort (profuge…ad parentes). As if on cue, Jocasta interrupts midline.9 She identifies herself by addressing Oedipus as her husband (coniunx, 81).10 Her speech lasts only through line 86, with Oedipus resuming at 87. Sutton has her remain onstage until the end of the act.11 There is, however, a textual concern. Manuscript branch A gives lines 103–5 to Jocasta, while E retains Oedipus as the speaker.12 Either Oedipus talks to himself, hence Fitch's stage direction,13 or else Jocasta further and unnecessarily cheers him on. As previously discussed, Seneca portrays Jocasta throughout this drama as a good Roman matron, whose job is to support her husband, but not to needlessly interfere.14 Having her speak here would be an unwanted intrusion. If Jocasta does remain silent for the rest of this episode, her physical presence accomplishes nothing, and so it is sensible that she exit after line 86, through the center doors, having fulfilled her function of strengthening her husband's courage.

  After Oedipus’ final words at line 109, he falls silent and withdraws to the scaenae frons. Sutton cautiously suggests that he may exit and reenter at line 201.15 As previously noted, however, Oedipus’ presence dominates the drama, and so it is important that he remain onstage throughout, except for specific times when he says that he goes into the palace.

  FIRST CHORAL SONG (110–201)

  The Chorus enters at line 110, discussing in some detail the effects of the plague. The song begins in minor sapphics and changes to anapests at line 154. Presumably this reflects a change in the choral dancing. It is possible that the individual members mime what they sing about, but this would be awkward and inelegant. Sutton suggests that the Chorus refers to itself at line 197, and so lies prostrate before the altar (prostrata iacet turba per aras).16 Instead, I take the turba as the unseen multitude of Thebans who are praying for some deliverance from the plague, and so again we should not imagine the Chorus as acting out its song.

  ACT 2 (202–402)

  Action units: (1) Creon returns from Delphi, where he had previously been sent by Oedipus. (2) Oedipus forces Creon to publicly announce what happened. (3) Creon makes his report, (4) which causes Oedipus to curse Laius’ killer and to begin an investigation into the regicide. (5) Tiresias and his daughter, Manto, perform an extispicium,17 but the results are inconclusive, leading the seer to go elsewhere in search of answers.

  At lines 202–5, the Chorus sees someone approaching and switches to iambic trimeter to announce his entrance. Once it concludes, it repairs to the scaenae frons.18 The newcomer enters from the wing leading out of town, and moves quickly toward the palace (quisnam ille propero regiam gressu petit, 202). He turns out to be the king's brother-
in-law, Creon (adest…Creo, 203 and again at 205).

  As Creon reaches center stage (line 206), Oedipus steps forward to address him. The king quakes with fear (horrore quatior, 206) and his chest falls with twin emotions (trepidumque gemino pectus affectu labat, 207). The obvious meaning of this line is that he is both glad for Creon's arrival and fearful of his news; but it also seems to be a reference to labored breathing or hyperventilating. Oedipus then commands the reluctant Creon to speak (voce properata edoce, 211), and so dialogue between the king and his brother-in-law ensues beginning with line 212 and ending at 216, after Oedipus has broken in midline, indicating an impatient demand.

  Although a pause is not indicated by his words,19 it is sensible to think that Creon would take a deep breath before giving a summary of Apollo's pronouncement at lines 217–20. Following more questioning by Oedipus (221–22), Creon describes what happened at Delphi using trochees (223–32). Just as elsewhere,20 Seneca uses this meter here for vivid description of mysterious events. Finally, Creon quotes the Delphic oracle directly (233–38), using dactylic hexameters, the meter that the Pythia would have used, and thus trying to distance himself from the bad news he delivers.

  After another unmarked pause to indicate shock, Oedipus speaks (239). Following more dialogue (244–47), Oedipus prays to the gods, with appropriate hand gestures (248–73). Finally, the king ends his prayers and addresses Creon (274–75), who uses the standard iambic trimeter to describe the place where Laius met his end (276–87). At lines 288–90, Creon announces the entrance of Tiresias (Tiresia, 289) and his daughter, Manto (comesque Manto, 290; Tiresias later confirms this identification: tu…gnata, 301), portrayed by actors C and D, along with the mute attendants who will assist them with the impending rites. The seer's blindness is referred to several times (e.g., luce viduatum, 290; visu carenti, 295; and lucis inopem, 301). He has not been summoned as he was in Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus, but has been motivated by Apollo (sorte Phoebea excitus, 288). He trembles while making haste slowly (tremulo tardus accelerat genu, 289), and is led by Manto (luce viduatum trahens, 290). Oedipus commands that Tiresias reveal the will of the gods (291–92). In the ensuing lines, the seer and his daughter conduct an extispicium, or ritual sacrifice and examination of the entrails.