The Dramaturgy of Senecan Tragedy

by Thomas; Kohn

  There has been much scholarly controversy surrounding the staging of this episode. Zwierlein finds the whole thing completely unacceptable dramatically,21 a view taken up most recently by Fitch, who asks how a cow and a bull could be brought onstage and sacrificed.22 Sutton suggests that drugged calves could be the solution; he goes on to raise the possibility of mute actors standing in front of the animals, blocking them from the audience's direct sight.23 Rosenmeyer posits that the sacrifice takes place offstage, and that Manto stands at the wing and describes what is happening out of sight.24 Ahl makes the brilliant suggestion that the heads of a bull and heifer are brought in by attendants, who would then move around to emulate the bovine actions.25 I think it possible that, instead of animals, Seneca could have envisioned dancers to represent them. I argue elsewhere that the theatrical performance of Vergil's Sixth Eclogue would include two dancers portraying the myth of Pasiphaë and the bull.26 And Suetonius tells of a pantomime depiction of the same story in 58 CE.27 Seneca might have had a similar technique in mind for the Oedipus, employing dancers to impersonate cattle. During a production of the Ted Hughes translation of this play, performed at Grand Valley State University on April 14, 2007, no attempt was made to represent the animals. The actions of the humans during the extispicium were completely mimed; and yet the skill of the actors was such that it seemed to the audience as if the cow and bull were before our eyes. Fitch maintains that any attempt to portray live animals who are then killed and whose intestines are examined would be unrealistic and unacceptable to a Roman audience.28 And even though he cites Walker's important review of Zwierlein, Fitch ignores Walker's wisdom: how can one object that Senecan drama does not fit the “accepted convention” of first-century Rome, when the only evidence we have for these conventions is these plays?29 As discussed in the first chapter, this is not a theater of illusion. Thus, if Manto says that a bull and a cow have been brought onstage, the Roman audience would take her word. Likewise, the actor does not actually slaughter a pair of bovines and examine their entrails; but the audience would accept that the extispicium is taking place. Similarly, if Tiresias’ daughter states that the incense produces multicolored flames, and that the smoke circles around the head of Oedipus, the audience would believe her; we do not need to try to figure out how such an effect could have been created on the Roman stage. This is not in any way to belittle or disregard the contributions of scholars such as Sutton, who tries to rationalize that sulfur thrown onto the sacrificial fire would cause the flame to leap up.30 Such technology might have been possible; but the effect need not be overly elaborate. Any physical suggestion of leaping flame, coupled with Manto's words would be enough for the audience of the time.

  Regardless, at line 293, Tiresias speaks and steps forward with Manto to the altar that Oedipus mentioned at line 71. Creon and Oedipus move to the side, far enough to get out of the way, but close enough for it to be believable that the smoke from the altar could waft around the king's head. The ceremony begins as Tiresias commands mute attendants to bring a bull and a cow to the altar (appellite aris bovem, 299). Even though he only mentions one singular bovem, he uses two distinct adjectives to modify the noun: first the masculine candidum and then the feminine depressam, indicating he desires two animals, one of either gender. Tiresias then commands that Manto relate to him the details of the sacrifice (signa refer, 302). This is, of course, a narrative necessity, since Tiresias is blind, and so cannot see what is happening. But it also serves the important dramaturgical function of letting the audience know what it should be seeing. In the ensuing scene, Manto and the mute attendants carry out the actions as Tiresias commands them; or rather, the actors mime the actions, as it is unlikely that an actual sacrifice occurred during the play. Still, since the described events are ostensibly taking place onstage, we should consider them.

  After being informed that the sacrificial animals are before the altar (victima ante aras stetit, 303), Tiresias commands Manto to call upon the gods ceremonially (superos voce sollemni voca, 304). She does not, in fact, pray verbally, and so must utter some sort of wordless chant. Following her father's command to heap incense upon the altar (arasque dono turis extrue, 305), Manto confirms that she has done as he instructed (iam tura ingessi, 306). As a result, the flame that consumed the incense leaps up and then suddenly dies (subito refulsit lumine et subito occidit, 308). Furthermore, the flame, rather than having just one appearance, instead consists of many colors (non una facies flammae fuit, 314). The multicolored flame then flickers (caerulea fulvis mixta oberravit notis, sanguinea rursus, 319–20), and finally sputters into the shadows (ultima in tenebras abit, 320). Now the flame divides itself into two parts (ignis in partes duas discedit, 321–22), just as the ashes separate themselves into two piles (se scindit unius sacri discors favilla, 322–23), and the sacrificial wine changes into blood (libata Bacchi dona permutat cruor, 324). Finally, a thick cloud of smoke surrounds the head of Oedipus (ambitque densus regium fumus caput, 325).

  Tiresias is dumbfounded (inter tumultus mentis attonitae vagus, 329), but recovers somewhat from his confusion, at least enough to move on from the burning of incense to the sacrifice of the cattle. He commands that Manto bring the victims to the altar (huc admove, 334) and sprinkle salt onto their necks (et sparge salsa colla taurorum mola, 335). As if in response, the bull, facing east (primos ad ortus positus, 338), first raises his head high (altum taurus attolens caput, 337) and then shies away from the light of the sun (expavit diem, 338). He suffers two blows from the sacrificial knife (at taurus duos perpessus ictus, 342–43), but yet wanders to and fro before the altar (huc et huc dubius ruit, 343); the bull finally dies, tired and reluctant (animamque fessus vix reluctantem exprimit, 344). Meanwhile, the heifer impales herself (iuvenca ferro semet opposito induit, 341), and dies from that single wound (et vulnere uno cecidit, 342).31 Further, blood gushes forth from the heifer, but only seeps and oozes out of the bull, while flowing into his eyes and mouth (347–50).

  Tiresias is terrified by what he has just heard (infausta magnos sacra terrores cient, 351), but nevertheless orders Manto to go on with the examination of the entrails (ede certas viscerum nobis notas, 352). The following description of the extispicium is quite accurate, both in terminology and in picking out the features that were looked for.32 But it is also hard to tell which animal is being examined at any given point in the proceedings, except, of course, when Manto speaks of the unborn fetus not being in the womb of the cow. Obviously, the following descriptions of what is going on within the bodies of the dead animals are not being portrayed, if only for practical reasons: nobody in the audience, possibly beyond the first few rows, would be able to see. But Manto's account is so vivid as to create the illusion for listeners that the condition and activities of the entrails are taking place before their eyes. The actor portraying Manto continues to behave as if there were real carcasses, and pretends to conduct the investigation. The intestines vibrate forcefully (non levi motu agitata trepidant exta, 353–54), strong enough to jostle Manto's hands (sed totas manus quatiunt, 354–55). Blood continues to pump through the veins (novusque prosilit venis cruor, 355) and the diseased heart droops and hides (cor marcet aegrum penitus ac mersum latet, 356). The veins are black and blue (liventque venae, 357) and large chunks of the intestines are missing (magna pars fibris abest, 357). The liver, which is spewing forth bile (et felle nigro tabidum spumat iecur, 358), has two masses, or “heads” (en! capita paribus bina consurgunt toris, 360), each one covered by a thin membrane (sed utrumque caesum tenuis abscondit caput membrana, 361–62). The “unfavorable” side of the liver has seven veins (hostile latus septem venas tendit, 363–64).33 The right lung is bloody and not able to draw breath (non animae capax pulmo sanguineus, 367–68), presumably because it is so full of blood that it would not be able to take in air.34 There is no room for the heart on the left side of the chest cavity where it belongs (non laeva cordi regio, 369). The intestines are not entwining around themselves and providing conce
aling folds (non molli ambitu omenta pingues visceri obtendunt sinus, 369–70). Surprisingly, since the heifer had not been mated prior to slaughter, there is a fetus inside the cow (conceptus innuptae bovis, 373), but the unborn calf is not in the womb, where it should be (nec more solito positus, 374). The carcass of the cow now produces a noise (membra cum genitu movet, 375). This and the roaring of the altar fire below (immugit aris ignis, 383) could be cues for sound effects. But given the intimate nature of the noises, it is equally possible that simply stating that they occurred would be enough for the audience to accept them. The limbs quiver (artus micant, 376), and bloody gore corrupts the discolored intestines (infecit atras lividus fibras cruor, 377). Finally, both carcasses try to get up and walk (temptantque turpes mobilem trunci gradum, 378), and in fact, the bull attempts to gore the silent priests (sacros petit cornu ministros, 379–80).35 As a result of attempting to rise, the entrails slip out of Manto's hands (viscera effugiunt manum, 380). The fire on the altars roars and the altars themselves tremble (et trepidant foci, 383).

  After ninety lines of exchange between Tiresias and Manto, Oedipus speaks (384–86), commanding that Tiresias reveal the secrets of the gods. The seer replies that he needs to perform a necromancy (390–97), and orders the Chorus to sing while he does so (401–2). After line 402, Tiresias, Manto, and Creon exit through the wing leading out of town, while Oedipus retreats to the scaenae frons.36

  SECOND CHORAL SONG (403–508)

  The Chorus steps forward at line 403 to follow Tiresias’ orders and perform a hymn in honor of Bacchus. The song employs a great variety of meters, including several sections each of dactylic hexameter and cantica polymetra, minor sapphics, anapests, and dactylic tetrameter. It is hard to tell what these changes of meter add to the meaning of the song; but it must surely reflect changes in the dance of the Chorus. The song contains very vivid descriptions of Bacchus and his various adventures. It is possible that some Chorus members act out the stories, but this does not seem likely. On the other hand, they do behave in a way proper for devotees of the wine god, binding their loose hair with ivy clusters (effusam redimite comam nutante corymbo, 403), bearing thyrsi in their arms (armati bracchia thyrsis, 404),37 and praying with arms outstretched and raised (palmis supplicibus, 408a). After having declared its intention to praise Bacchus forever, the Chorus concludes its song at line 508 and retreats to the scaenae frons.

  ACT 3 (509–708)

  Action units: (1) Oedipus addresses the recently returned Creon. (2) He reports the results of the necromancy: the dead king accused Oedipus, (3) who responds that it must be some kind of plot and has Creon imprisoned.

  Creon must enter via the wing leading out of town while the choral ode ends, since Oedipus steps forward and speaks to him at line 509. Creon looks sad (vultus flebiles praefert notas, 509). Twenty lines of rapid-fire dialogue between Oedipus and Creon occur, with the two of them often mirroring each other's vocabulary.

  Creon pauses before he begins to speak, giving him time to collect his thoughts and decide exactly how he wants to deliver his lengthy account of the necromancy (530–658). The narration is vividly descriptive,38 but none of the events he relates should thought to be physically portrayed onstage.

  After Creon completes his account, Oedipus pauses before he speaks, once more shaking with fear (et ossa et artus gelidus invasit tremor, 659). Creon and Oedipus engage in another passage of dialogue with much repetition of vocabulary, and several midline speaker changes (678–708). At last, Oedipus orders his silent attendants to imprison Creon (servate sontem saxeo inclusum specu, 707). They drag him off via the wing leading out of town, since it is doubtful that a “rocky cave” exists within the city.39 This is Creon's final appearance in this play; as for Oedipus, for the first time since his initial entrance in act 1, he leaves the stage, exiting through the center doors into the palace (ipse ad penates regios referam gradum, 708).

  THIRD CHORAL SONG (709–63)

  While Oedipus searches for Jocasta, the Chorus steps forward to sing a canticum polymetrum, starting at line 709. It addresses Oedipus directly (tu, 709), which is noteworthy because the king has just left the stage. The Chorus did not speak to him when he was there; so why do so when he is absent? The Chorus has done this before, addressing Bacchus in both the first and second songs, although the god was not actually there. This technique helps to keep Oedipus in the mind of the audience during his absence. Even though he is offstage, Oedipus is never far from the spotlight. At the conclusion of its song (763), the Chorus goes back to the scaenae frons.

  ACT 4 (764–881)

  Action units: (1) Oedipus asks a few questions, which Jocasta hesitantly answers. (2) She is replaced on stage by an Old Man from Corinth who tells Oedipus that King Polybus not only is dead, but also is not really his father. Oedipus, while still a baby, had been given to the Old Man by a Theban shepherd named Phorbas, who is coincidentally the same shepherd who was previously summoned. (3) With much reluctance, Phorbas reveals that Oedipus is really the son of Laius and Jocasta. (4) Oedipus does not take the news well.

  At line 764, Oedipus and Jocasta enter through the center doors. The king speaks. He addresses Jocasta (unanima coniunx, 773), with no indication that she is only now coming onstage, thus confirming that she entered with him at line 764.40 The queen answers (776), and dialogue ensues. At line 783, Jocasta speaks her final words in this episode, although there is a bit of controversy about this. Lines 825–27, 829–32, 835–36, and 843–44 are assigned in the manuscripts to the Old Corinthian. Weil, however, gives them to Jocasta,41 an emendation that many scholars adopt,42 but not all.43 The reasoning for reassigning is, first, that the Old Corinthian would not use the type of frank and straightforward language that these lines contain; however, the servant states early on that he is accustomed to keeping confidence with kings (praestare tactitam regibus soleo fidem, 799). So it is in keeping with his character for the Old Corinthian to speak in this way to the king of Thebes. The second argument is that Jocasta does not have a big enough role in this play, and so lines must be added in order to give her the kind of part that modern scholars who have read Sophocles think she deserves.44 Seneca's Jocasta, however, as we have seen before, is the model of a Roman matron, who does what she can to support her husband, but otherwise stays in the shadows. Thus, it is understandable that she exit after her final words at line 783, after telling Oedipus about Laius’ death, but before revealing a truth that she must by this point suspect. So neither of Weil's reasons for reassigning lines hold. And a third argument against him is that this would lead to an unnecessary violation of the rule of three actors, since an actor will shortly be needed to portray the shepherd, Phorbas. Therefore, I follow the reading of the manuscripts and have Jocasta exit after 783, with the Old Corinthian speaking the contested lines.

  As Jocasta (actor B) exits following line 783,45 the Old Corinthian (actor C) enters via the wing leading out of town at line 784 and speaks. Dialogue with Oedipus follows, during which the king calls upon the gods (testor, 790) with the proper accompanying gestures. In fact, he hopes his hands are pure and may acceptably be raised to the heavens (licet tollere ad caelum puras manus, 790–91). Later, the Old Corinthian gestures with his own hands (hae manus, 806). Finally, Oedipus orders his mute attendants to go and fetch Phorbas, the old shepherd (ite, propere accersite, famuli, 823–24). These servants may be the same ones who dragged Creon to the cave (707), who then must have returned at some point via the wing leading out of town; but those men probably stayed to guard the cave. It is more likely that these are new servants who entered with Oedipus and Jocasta from the center doors at line 764. They carry out the king's present orders by going out the wing leading to the forum, where they will find the shepherd, whose flock, according to Oedipus, is being driven to the temples and altars (ad sacra et aras compulsum pecus duces sequuntur, 822–23).

  An old man (actor B), later called by name (Phorbas, 840), enters from the wing leading to the forum (ecce grand
aevus senex! 838), where Oedipus had previously said the flocks were being driven (822–23). He is accompanied by the servants who had been sent to fetch him. Before he speaks (845), there are two lines whose speaker is in doubt. Zwierlein follows Gronovius in giving lines 843–44 to Oedipus, instead of the Old Corinthian, as is found in the manuscripts.46 This, however, seems to me an arbitrary attribution. The servant, who is used to giving advice to kings (799), is just as likely as the king himself to begin the questioning. And he will continue to take part in the interrogation, speaking again at line 847 and 855. So I stick with the manuscript reading.47 Once Phorbas begins to talk at line 845, three-way dialogue between Phorbas, Oedipus, and the Old Corinthian takes up the following lines until 867. The shepherd pauses before breaking in midline at 847; in fact, his first word is dubitat, confirming that he hesitates before speaking. Phorbas continues to hesitate (dubitas? 849) and blushes (cur genas mutat color? 849). Oedipus points to the Old Corinthian (huic, 848), as does Phorbas (isti, 853). Oedipus himself interrupts in the middle of line 864 with an impatient demand, which the shepherd answers (coniuge est genitus tua, 867), again following a midline pause. After these words at 867, neither Phorbas nor the Old Corinthian speaks again. It is possible that they exit at this point. I think, however, that this would be distracting. Nothing should take focus away from Oedipus as the bitter truth hits him that he has, in fact, married his mother and killed his father. Indeed, it would help him keep the attention of the audience if there were two extra sets of eyes watching him.48