The Dramaturgy of Senecan Tragedy

by Thomas; Kohn

  The Chorus remains onstage,14 switches to trimeter, and addresses the Nurse (altrix, profare, 358), who has been attending to Phaedra within the palace, and so enters from the center doors. The Chorus makes room for the Nurse, perhaps splitting into two parts, so she can be alone center stage; alternatively, the entire Chorus moves to one side, but does not retreat all the way back to the scaenae frons. The Nurse addresses the huntsmen, describing what Phaedra has been doing inside.15 These should not be taken as stage directions; that is, Phaedra is not visible performing the acts as the Nurse mentions them.16 Her mood while offstage, however, will still be applicable when she reenters. Although she has tried to hide it (lines 361–62), Phaedra's passion is manifest in her expression (proditur vultu furor, 363). Fire erupts from her eyes (erumpit oculis ignis, 364), which she in exhaustion covers and hides from the light (lassae genae lucem recusant, 364–65). Phaedra flits from one activity to another (nil idem dubiae placet, 365), as some unspecified pain occupies her limbs (artusque varie iactat incertus dolor, 366). She droops her head with exhaustion, but then suddenly starts awake (nunc ut soluto labitur marcens gradu et vix labante sustinet collo caput, 367–68), at one moment sleeping (nunc se quieti reddit, 369), and the next complaining of insomnia (et somni immemor noctem querelis ducit, 369–70). She first wants her hair to be let down, and then to be bound up again (solvi comas rursusque fingi, 371–72).17 Throughout all this activity, Phaedra is constantly impatient (semper impatiens, 372), and her appearance keeps changing (mutatur habitus, 373). She walks like an invalid (vadit incertopede, 374), lacking both her previous strength (iam viribus defecta: non idem vigor, 375) and the usual healthy redness in her face (non ora tinguens nitida purpureus rubor, 376). At last, she weeps (lacrimae cadunt, 381).

  Suddenly, the Nurse points as a window or balcony in the second level of the scaenae frons opens (sed en! patescunt regiae fastigia, 384). Phaedra herself appears (ipsa, 385), reclining on a golden chair (reclinis sedis auratae toro, 385). She speaks to her mute servants (famulae, 387), ordering them to take off her fancy clothes (removete vestes, 387–88) and demanding hunting garb (brevis expeditos zona constringat sinus, 390). She wants neither a collar (cervix monili vacua, 391) nor pearl earrings (nec niveus lapis deducat auris, 391–92). Her hair should be down and without perfume (odore crinis sparsus Assyrio vacet, 393), and in general allowed to flow freely down her neck and arms, moved by the wind (394–96). After line 403, Phaedra withdraws from the balcony and the window is closed.18

  There is some dispute about what happens next. The only definite facts are that someone gives a command to calm down and pray to Diana (404–5). Someone else does just that (406–22), before the arrival of Hippolytus is announced (423–30). Clearly, 404–5 should belong to someone other than Phaedra, and 406–30, in its entirety, to someone other than the speaker of 404–5. The E manuscript branch gives 404–5 to the Chorus, while the A family assigns them to the Nurse. Then, before 406, many of the manuscripts list Hippolytus and the Nurse as the characters in the ensuing episode. Fortey and Glucker (1975), Zwierlein (1986), Boyle (1987), and Fitch (2002) all go with the Chorus for 404–5 and the Nurse for 406–30, while Coffey and Mayer (1990), reluctantly, give 404–5 to the Nurse, 406–26 to Phaedra, and 427–30 to the Nurse; their rationale seems to be that sepone questus (404) must be directed to Phaedra, and therefore she must utter the prayer. But throughout her appearance in this episode, Phaedra has paid no attention to either the Nurse or the Chorus, and it is hard to imagine why she would start now. She is simply displaying the short attention span that the Nurse commented on at lines 365–72: she comes to the window suddenly, and just as suddenly withdraws. In response to this display, the Chorus, which had asked the Nurse about Phaedra at lines 358–59, now says that lamenting will do no good; instead, she must appeal to the gods. The Nurse then obeys. The Chorus is very active in this play. It speaks in trimeter and announces an entrance at the end of each song. And in fact it speaks within an episode at lines 1244–45. So it is both sensible and consistent to have it speak within the act here. Finally, it is clear that lines 423–30 are spoken by the Nurse. But it is equally clear that it makes little sense to change speaker at 423. Lines 406–30 belong to the same person, and that person must be the Nurse. So, to sum up, at line 403, Phaedra leaves the balcony and the window is closed. The Chorus speaks lines 404–5 and then, having advised the Nurse to give proper reverence to its favorite goddess, exits to the forest.19 The Nurse, center stage, prays to Diana, with all appropriate hand gestures.20

  The Nurse's prayers have been answered, as Hippolytus enters at line 423 from the wing leading to the forest. She observes him (ipsum intuor, 424) as he carries out some sacred rite (sollemne venerantem sacrum, 424). Hippolytus is alone (nullo latus comitante, 425), confirming that the Chorus of his companions is not present for this episode. The Nurse hesitates (quid dubitas, 425), afraid to speak to the young man (trepidamus, 427). Instead, he addresses her at line 431, noting that she walks like an old person (seniles moliris gradus, 431). Further, she looks tired (fessa, 431), troubled (turbidam frontem gerens, 432), and sorrowful (maesta vultu, 433). The Nurse responds at line 435, confessing to being worried (anxiam me, 438). Throughout her speech, she refers to Hippolytus and his youthfulness as being “sad” (e.g., tristem iuventam, 449), reflecting some seriousness or general dourness in the young man. At line 483, he answers, finally displaying some emotion (horreo, fugio, execror, 566) as he gets onto the subject of women.

  At line 583, Phaedra enters (sed Phaedra praeceps graditur) from the center doors, still displaying impatience (impatiens morae, 583). Suddenly, out of breath, she collapses onto the ground (terrae repente corpus exanimum accidit, 585), as a deathlike paleness creeps over her face (et ora morti simils obduxit color, 586). Her Nurse urges her to raise her head and speak (attolle vultus, dimove vocis moras, 587). Meanwhile, Hippolytus rushes to Phaedra's side and holds her (temet Hippolytus tenet, 588), cradling her head in an attempt to revive her. Following line 588, the Nurse does not speak again until the end of the episode; she moves to the side and remains as a silent observer of the dialogue between Phaedra and Hippolytus.21 Phaedra prays to the gods (vos testor omnis, 604), with appropriate accompanying gestures, and is so flustered that she leaves line 605 incomplete (me nolle). Both characters display uncontrolled emotions throughout the episode, as each one begins to speak in the middle of a line several times. At the first occurrence (summus hoc omen deus avertat, 623–24), Hippolytus is shocked by Phaedra's use of the word viduae.22 She is still held in Hippolytus’ embrace (sinu receptam supplicem, 622); but this would be a good time for him to recoil from her touch and stand, leaving her still on the ground, sitting up. Later on, Phaedra reaches out to touch Hippolytus’ knees (en supplex iacet adlapsa genibus, 666–67). The revolted Hippolytus addresses the gods (magne regnator deum! 671) with appropriate gestures, and moves away from Phaedra, who continues to grovel (genibus advolvor tuis, 703). The youth backs up as he tells his stepmother to move away (procul impudicos corpore a casto amove tactus, 704–5); nevertheless, she continues to try to embrace him (etiam in amplexus ruit? 705). In desperation, Hippolytus draws his sword (stringatur ensis, 706), grabs Phaedra by the hair, and twists (en impudicum crine contorto caput laeva reflexi, 707–8). She, however, welcomes death (Hippolyte, nunc me compotem voti facis, 710), and so does not struggle. But Hippolytus refuses to sully his sword, throwing it aside (hic contactus ensis deserat castum latus, 713–14) and demanding that she go away (abscede, vive, 713).23 Finally, at line 718, the young man exits via the wing leading to the forest (o silvae, o ferae! 718), not to be seen again in one piece.

  After a pause, the Nurse speaks at line 719. She is stunned (quid segnis stupes? 719), having witnessed the whole thing. She calls upon Athenians (Adeste, Athenae! 725), specifically a band of servants (fida famulorum manus, 725), to come as witnesses to Phaedra's abuse by Hippolytus. It is doubtful that this group is the Chorus, since it subsequently blames Phaedra for th
e plot that the Nurse herself is hatching (824–28). Further, it would be awkward to bring mute actors onto the stage, only to move them out ten lines later. It is, then, most sensible that the actor behaves as if the summons were answered without employing actual performers.24 The Nurse goes on to describe the alleged crimes of Hippolytus, pointing to his sword as proof of his villainy (ensem liquit, 729). Phaedra is also still onstage, lying on the ground, having fainted during the struggle with Hippolytus (hanc maestam prius recreate, 730–31), her hair pulled and torn out (crinis tractus et lacerae comae, 731). The Nurse commands the Athenians to carry the news of Hippolytus’ treachery into the city (perferte in urbem! 733),25 before addressing the reviving Phaedra (recipe iam sensus, era, 733). The queen tears at her breast in mourning and looks away in shame, avoiding all eye contact (quid te ipsa lacerans omnium aspectus fugis? 734). After line 735, the Nurse escorts Phaedra offstage through the center doors into the palace

  SECOND CHORAL SONG (736–823)

  The Chorus, evidently having heard the news, enters at line 736 and sings in a variety of meters, before concluding at line 823.

  ACT 3 (824–958)

  Action units: (1) Phaedra is distraught. (2) Theseus returns from his long stay in the Underworld, only to be greeted by outcries from the palace. (3) He consults with the Nurse, (4) before Phaedra herself tells her husband that his son attempted to have his way with her. (5) Theseus both exiles Hippolytus and also asks his father, Neptune, to kill him.

  At line 824, the Chorus reverts to iambic trimeter. It suddenly sees Phaedra (en scelera! 826), who opens the window in the second level of the scaenae frons, and appears on the balcony, as she did earlier.26 She musses her hair (decus omne turbat capitis, 827), which is torn (crine lacerato, 826) as the Nurse had described at 731, and weeps (umectat genas, 827).

  At line 829, a man enters (sed iste quisnam est? 829), later identified as Theseus (en ipse Theseus! 834), via the wing leading from the Underworld. He is portrayed by the same actor who played Hippolytus, explaining why the two do not confront each other, as they do in Euripides’ play, as well as why the youth does not speak as he lies dying. He has a regal expression (regium in vultu decus gerens, 829–30), and holds his head high (alto vertice attollens caput, 830). But he is pale and sluggish (languido pallore canderent genae, 832), and his hair is filthy and unkempt (staretque recta squalor incultus coma, 833). He comes center stage as the Chorus withdraws to the scaenae frons27 At line 835, he speaks. After being gone for so long, he blinks and shades his eyes from the unaccustomed light of the sun (vix cupitum sufferunt oculi diem, 837).28 Further, he is old and weak, not as he was before his long sojourn in the Underworld (fessa virtus robore antiquo caret, 846),29 and his steps are quivering and hesitant (trepidant gressus, 847). Theseus is surprised to hear cries of mourning coming from the palace, indicating a sound cue (quis fremitus aures flebilis pepulit meas? 850).

  At line 854, the Nurse enters from the center doors, and speaks, engaging in a few lines of dialogue with Theseus. The king orders mute attendants, who must have entered with the Nurse,30 to unbar the gates of the palace (reserate clausos regii postes laris, 863). The center doors are opened, and Phaedra is wheeled out on the exostra.

  Theseus addresses his wife (o socia thalami, 864). The Nurse falls silent for the rest of the episode, but remains onstage. She stands by her mistress, comforting her.31 Phaedra holds the sword of Hippolytus in her right hand (quin ense viduas dexteram, 866); she eventually speaks, jumping in the middle of line 868. Dialogue ensues between her and Theseus, with a number of midline speaker changes. The king weeps (lacrimae nostrae, 880) and orders the mute attendants to beat the Nurse (vincite ferro, 884) in order to learn of Phaedra's malady. They move to obey, before being stopped by the queen (mane, 885). Phaedra turns away from her husband (ora maesta avertis, 886) and raises a veil or other article of clothing (veste praetenta optegis, 887), in an attempt to hide the tears that have begun to fall down her cheeks (lacrimas genis subito coortas, 886–87). Next, she prays to Jupiter (te, te, creator caelitum, 888), with appropriate gestures, before displaying the sword that Hippolytus dropped (hic dicet ensis, 896). Theseus, in disbelief, identifies the weapon as one bearing his royal family crest (regale patriis asperum signis ebur capulo refulget, gentis Actaeae decus, 899–900). Finally, Phaedra points to the servants (hi famuli, 901–2) who saw Hippolytus flee, apparently the same imaginary people to whom the Nurse called at line 725. At his point, the exostra rolls back inside, bringing with it Phaedra and the Nurse, neither of whom speaks for the rest of the episode, and the center doors are closed.32

  Theseus, now alone with the Chorus, prays to the gods (pro sancta Pietas, 903), with appropriate gestures. At line 958, he concludes his appeal, and retires to the scaenae frons.

  THIRD CHORAL SONG (959–88)

  At line 959, The Chorus steps forward to sing in anapests. It prays to the gods (o magna parens, 959), and gestures appropriately.

  ACT 4 (989–1122)

  Action units: (1) A Messenger arrives who tells Theseus about the maritime sea-monster that has caused Hippolytus’ death. (2) Theseus both rejoices and mourns.

  The Chorus, again reverting to trimeter, announces the entrance of a quickly moving Messenger (sed quid citato nuntius portat gradu, 989), played by the same actor who portrays the Nurse.33 He comes from the horrific scene of Hippolytus’ death, and so uses the wing leading to the forest. He weeps and has a mournful expression (rigatque maestis lugubrem vultum genis, 990). After line 990, the Chorus falls silent and withdraws to the scaenae frons. Theseus steps forward to engage in dialogue with the Messenger (991–99); both men retain enough composure to not begin speaking in the middle of a line. At line 1000, the Messenger begins his account of Hippolytus’ offstage death.34 When he concludes at line 1114, Theseus finally breaks in midline, lamenting (o nimium potens, 1114) and weeping (fleo, 1117). After line 1122, he ceases to talk and recedes to the scaenae frons. The Messenger exits via the wing leading to the forest, from whence he originally came, in order to lament with his fellow former companions of Hippolytus.

  FOURTH CHORAL SONG (1123–53)

  The Chorus steps forward at line 1123 and sings its final song, in a variety of meters. There are no indications of specific stage business, although the huntsmen must move with the rhythm, and the shifts of meter must indicate changes in the dance. At line 1153, it concludes.

  ACT 5 (1154–1280)

  Action units: (1) Phaedra confesses the truth, and then fatally stabs herself. (2) Theseus laments. (3) The torn body parts of his son are brought onstage, as Theseus attempts to put them back together.

  The Chorus, reverting once more to trimeter, hears a mournful sound coming from the palace (quae vox ab altis flebilis tectis sonat, 1154), indicating a sound cue. Phaedra enters from the center doors, carrying a drawn sword (strictoque vecors Phaedra quid ferro parat, 1155).35 Although it is not explicitly stated that she uses the same weapon that her stepson left behind, such a recycling of props would make a powerful statement.36 The Chorus moves back to the scaenae frons, while Theseus moves forward with Phaedra. She is not only raving (vecors, 1155), but also riled up with pain and rage (quis te dolore percitam instigat furor, 1156). Theseus points to the sword, asking about both it and the outcry that Phaedra makes as she laments (quid ensis iste quidve vociferatio, 1157). The queen beats her breast in mourning (planctusque supra corpus invisum volunt, 1158).37 At line 1159, she begins her monologue. She addresses the imaginary corpse (Hippolyte, 1168), and gestures with her hand (hac manu, 1176), while foreshadowing her impending suicide (nefando pectori ferrum inseram, 1177). She then cuts off a lock of her hair as an offering for Hippolytus (capitis exuvias cape laceraeque frontis accipe abscisam comam, 1181–82). Finally, she stabs her chest (mucrone pectus impium iusto patet cruorque sancto soluit inferias viro, 1197–98) and dies onstage; her body remains in plain view of the audience for the rest of the play.

  Most scholars follow manuscript family E in assigni
ng lines 1199–1200 to Theseus.38 Without explanation, Fitch (2002) adopts the reading of family A and assigns these lines to Phaedra, while Fortey and Glucker (1975) 714 give the lines to a member of the Chorus. Phaedra is already dead, so it would make little sense for her to speak these words. Further, the content of the lines argue in favor of Theseus. The speaker advises Theseus to follow the example of Phaedra and kill himself. While there is precedent in Senecan tragedy for one character to counsel another not to commit suicide,39 not even the overly vindictive Atreus suggests that Thyestes should take his own life. Further, the language used is more in line with Theseus than either Phaedra or a Chorus member: condere Acherontis plagis. The Athenian hero has recently returned from the Underworld, and so he would think of returning there. In addition, the lines fit in with the ensuing monologue, in which Theseus describes the Underworld and begs for death. It is reasonable, then, to follow family E and let Theseus speak lines 1199–1200. Interestingly, he uses trochaic tetrameter at lines 1201–12, a meter that occurs twice more in Senecan tragedy: at Medea 740–51, when Medea calls upon the spirits of the Underworld, and at Oedipus 223–32, when Creon describes the horrors he saw at Delphi. Thus, it is a meter that Seneca sometimes uses for telling about horrifying scenes, and quite appropriate here. At line 1213, Theseus reverts to trimeter.

  At lines 1244–46, the Chorus speaks within an episode for the second time in this play,40 advising Theseus to put off lamenting and instead see to his son's corpse. He in turn orders mute attendants to carry in the remnants of Hippolytus’ body (huc, huc reliquias vehite cari corporis, 1247). They come in from the wing leading to the forest. It is hard to know whether this is pantomimed, or whether actual lumps of something are brought on.41 Throughout, both Theseus (lacrimis nostris, 1261) and the attendants (fletusque largos sistite, arentes genae, 1263) weep. Once these remains have been collected, Theseus embraces them (complectere artus, 1254) and attempts to reassemble them (in ordinem dispone, 1257); unfortunately, too much of the body is missing (quam magna pars adhuc abest, 1261). Nevertheless, Theseus continues with his task (genitor corpus fingit, 1264–65). At lines 1275–80, the king gives some final commands to his servants, including orders to prepare for Hippolytus’ funeral and to throw Phaedra's body into a ditch somewhere. The silent attendants leave in order to do that, some going into the palace, and some to the forest. Theseus is left onstage, alone, except for the Chorus and the pieces of Hippolytus.